Part 6 - Chapter 6

The Seminoles who remained in Florida in the nineteenth century.

There is a tremendous body of literature that describes the dress of the Seminoles as well as many garments in museums. The garments are made from patchwork and are multi-colored, etc. As has been shown in Part 6, Chapter 5, the Seminoles who lived in Indian Territory did not dress differently than did the other Indian inhabitants. The wearing apparel varied immensely from long shirts and breech clouts to trousers and high collared shirts for the men. The women's dress was more uniform even though it, too, varied.

The question then arises, where, how, and when did these colorful and unique clothes originate?

It needs to be remembered that by 1842, the majority of the Florida Seminoles had emigrated to Indian Territory. Those that remained in Florida had moved to the Reserve in Southwestern Florida. This land had been specified in the 1839 Macomb Agreement as a temporary reserve.1 This reserve consisted of "two and one half million acres situated west and south of Lake Istokpoga, and west of a line running from the mouth of the Kissimmee River through the Florida Everglades to the Shark River and thence along the Gulf Coast to the Peace River".2 Between the reserve and the land open to the whites was a twenty mile stretch set aside as a buffer.3

Once the Second Seminole War was over, peace should have reigned; however, it did not. Some of the reasons included: the pact was viewed as temporary by many of the governmental officials, land hungry White men saw the Seminoles as a threat, and the Indians did not trust, from experience, White men.4

Between 1842 and 1854 minor incidences of violence occurred that resulted in action against individual Seminoles. Many conferences were held and even a delegation went on a tour of the East.5 Billy Bowlegs (Holatter Micco) was present. Many articles were written about him and sketches made of the entourage.

A reporter described him and his retinue in Gleason's Pictorial Magazine in 1852.

"Our artist has presented us below a very fine and lifelike picture of an Indian party from the western wilds as they lately appeared in New York. The party consisted of the famous Billy Bowlegs, six Indian chiefs and an interpreter. Billy is himself a short, stout-built and quite ordinary looking man of about forty years of age and was clad in a calico frock, leggings and a belt or two and a sort of short cloak. On his head he wore a kind of turban enclosed in a broad silver band and surmounted by a profusion of black ostrich feathers."6

The daguerreotype presented in Covington's book shows that while there was a consistency of dress, ie., the six men wore loose robes (probably the calico frocks described), trousers, and some sort of turban, they all remained individualistic in dress. Firstly, no two turbans were alike. In these authors opinions, turbans were as individualistic as the people who wore them. Some were broader than they were high; some were encircled by apparently silver bands; and some contained feathers. Secondly, all wore different handkerchiefs around their necks of varying lengths. Some were long and tied in a knot in the front while some were short and tied under the collar (which also were not the same). Thirdly, every member sported different ornamentation. Some wore bandoliers across their chests with gorgets or round medallions.7 One point that is critical is that while similar, the attire was individualistic. Billy Bowlegs was also presented in a daguerreotype in 1852. Although he is dressed more elaborately than the other men described above, nevertheless, the basic garb is the same. The differences manifested themselves in the ruffle on the bottom of the hunting-frock8 and in some of the bands of appliqued fabric or ribbon. These bands were used sparingly.

In 1858, Harpers Weekly did a feature on Billy Bowlegs when he was in New Orleans. A photographer by the name of Clark took photographs of Billy Bowlegs, Long Jack, No-Kush-Adjo, Ben Brumo (a slave), and the young wife of Billy Bowlegs.9

Billy Bowlegs was dressed in a calico frock, also called a robe, tunic, or hunting-shirt or frock. It Looked to be V-necked, but it probably was an open garment drawn closed. This garment reached to his mid thigh. This one had a decorative trim about six inches from the bottom. The sleeves of it were full but tightly banded at the wrist. Under it he probably wore a white shirt that reached to his thighs but shorter than the frock. Around his neck appeared to be a handkerchief knotted tightly. From his neck were suspended two round medallions. He wore a bandolier crossed over his chest in an "X". The bandolier appeared to be hand woven with a zigzag and diamond pattern. He appeared to possibly wear a belt around his waist. He also apparently wore moccasins. His leggings were made of a darker material than his frock. The bottoms ended in a point over his moccasins and were edged in a rick-rack. Around his legs were hand-woven garters that ended in long tassels. On his head, he wore a turban that sat low on his head, covered his forehead, and had a broad circumference. Around it appears to be a metal band. On the right side of the turban extended a cloth that reached below his shoulders. In the back were three feather plumes.

Long Jack, Bowleg's lieutenant, was dressed in an open patterned frock with full sleeves, gathered at the wrists. It was patterned with a band about four inches from the bottom that was probably about an inch wide. Under this frock, he wore a long shirt that reached to his thighs. Around his neck was knotted a handkerchief the ends of which were tucked under his shirt. A narrow strap extended over his right shoulder. Diamond patterns adorned it. On his head he wore a shawl knotted over his forehead in the form of a bulky band. Its ends were knotted and extended over Long Jack's shoulder. He was barefoot in the picture, and his leggings terminated at his ankles in an extended "V" that faced outward. Under his knees he wore garters. These appear to be knotted fringed shawls.

The photograph of No-Kush-Adjo is only a partial shot. His hunting shirt was more ornate than that of the other two. It appeared to be made of a dark material. Its sleeves were dropped from the shoulder and not as full as the others. The bottom of the sleeves had a "V" cut into them to make them larger; the sleeves were trimmed with a wide band composed of the Greek key design as triangles. Above it were three other bands. Under this frock No-Kush-Adjo wore a white shirt with frilly, full, lace cuffs. He sported a wide bandolier over his right shoulder with a repetitive design on it. Over his left shoulder, he wore a thin strap that probably supported a bag. Around his neck were beads and scarves. On his head, he wore a small flat turban whose diameter was small. Possibly, he also had a silver band around it. His hair was straggly and extended a little below his ears. In his ears, he wore earrings composed of balls and cylindrical beads.

Billy Bowlegs young wife was photographed wearing a frock with loose flowing sleeves that were also cut in the shape of a "V" at the bottom and extended below her wrists. The whole frock appeared to be flowing. It is impossible to tell how it was made at the waist. Thus whether it was made of one or two pieces cannot be ascertained from the picture. Either were possible. She wore a thin shawl thrown over her shoulders and wrapped around her neck so that it looked like a cape. This article was edged with trim, gathered and about two inches wide. This shawl, worn so that it reassembled a cape, might have been the predecessor of the style of Seminole women's bodice worn toward the end of the nineteenth century which had a yoke attached that looked like a cape. The neckline of Billy Bowleg's wife's bodice was high. She wore multiple strings of beads wound tightly and many times around her neck. She wore earrings that extended from her ears and appeared to be made up of many shells or many beads. Most of her hair was drawn back from her face and probably clubbed while a fringe of hair was left around her face.

The Negro slave, Ben Bruno, wore a traditional White man's coat. It reached mid thigh and had a double lapel with three buttons down the front. The sleeves were straight. His pants were of the same or similar stuff and cuffed. On his feet, he appeared to be wearing soft shoes. But this aspect could be misleading. On his head was a small handkerchief; however, in his hand was a broad brimmed had with a rounded crown. Under his coat, was a white shirt with a small pointed collar. It is possible that he also wore a light colored scarf, knotted once, under the shirt collar.10

In 1852, William Todd Allen, a resident of Leominster, Massachusetts took a trip to Florida. He kept a diary of his travels:

"We went to Ft. Mellon which is quite a little village, with an old church, built at the time of the `Indian war' for a store house - it has been used for a church and all sorts of purposes since - the Indians were confined there, when I saw it - they were a dirty looking lot of them - eleven in all - some of them were entirely naked, and others merely had shirts on - there was only one warrior in the whole party, and he had a rope tied around his neck which one of the soldiers kept hold of all the time - he was about 22 years old, and looked as though he would fight some, if he had a chance - 3 women, 2 boys about 11 and 17 years old who could fight if called upon, but not old enough to be called warriors - they were as `spry as cats' and seemed to be perfectly happy - 1 girl about 15 or 16 years old and 4 little ones 2 or 3 years old, which were entirely naked, 'til some ladies and white children brought them some large cotton handkerchiefs to throw over their shoulders, but they did not keep them on long, as they were not used to them and had rather be as they naturally were then have them on, so they pulled them off...."11

Not all the Seminoles had left Florida. After a peaceful few years, the Secretary of War decided that a "showdown was necessary" and ordered troops into Florida. The Seminoles were told that if they did not remove themselves, they would be removed forcibly.12

Skirmishes and battles continued over the next few years and some Seminoles were taken prisoners and shipped to the West. However, by 1858, the Federal Government realized that to capture all the Seminoles was an impossibility.13 According to Coe, once all of Billy Bowlegs followers and the captives had been sent to the west, only about 100 persons remained secreted in the Everglades.14 These were mainly the followers of Sam Jones, leader of the Mikasukis.15

As stated earlier, Billy Bowlegs and his followers were featured and portrayed in Harpers Weekly in 1858. The mens's clothes resembled those worn by the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Cherokees, in the earlier part of the nineteenth century. They are what many writers in the mid-nineteenth century referred to as "Indian costume."

The attire of Billy Bowleg's young wife does show some marked differences from that of other Indian women at that period of time. These are exemplified by the wide cape or "cape like" collar that extended beyond her shoulders and her many strands of beads that were wrapped snugly around her neck. While beads were worn by others, they were not wrapped in the same manner. In addition, her hair was styled so that while most was pulled into a knot at the back of her head, some was left that was feathered or fringed toward her face.

The remnant of the Seminoles lived isolated in the recesses of the Everglades, Ten Thousand island, and Big Cypress Swamp where few White men penetrated for many years. No major contact is recorded until about 1870.16

       Costume Plate # 3737Seminole mensm.jpg (6518 bytes)
Lieutenant R. H. Pratt was the first White man to officially visit the Seminoles since the end of the third Seminole War. This he did as representing the Federal Government in 1879.

Pratt found that the Seminoles lived in four villages, one of which claimed it consisted of Creeks, whose origin was different from the residents of the other villages. These people, also, spoke a different but similar language. This village was the first visited by Pratt. The people fished and raised ample crops of well tended corn, sugar-cane, rice, sweet potatoes, etc. They also kept hogs, chickens, and had some ponies and cattle.

Pratt described their manner of dress:

"The men wear the usual breech clout, calico shirt ornamented with bright stripes of ribbon, and a small shawl of bright colors folded the width of the hand and wrapped around the head like a turban. The legs and feet are usually bare, but on special occasions they wear both moccassins [sic] and leggings of buckskin, and in addition, a light hunting coat of bright colors ornamented with strips of ribbon or cloth of bright flashy colors."17

The style of dress did not change since these Indians fled into the "swamp" in the 1850's or earlier.

"The women wear short jackets, and skirts made of calico. I saw none with covering on the feet. Cheap beads, large and small, and all colors, are piled up in enormous, fagging quantities, about their necks. The hair of the old women is done up in a conical shaped knob on the back of the head, while the young women wear theirs long and flowing, with bangs in front.

"Small children don't wear anything."18

Dr. William Sturtevant who annotated and edited this account, stated in footnote 13 that Pratt's description of "loose and flowing hair" is not consistent with hair dressing styles among Native Americans.

     Costume Plate # 3838Seminole men cont sm.jpg (7863 bytes)
A count of the Indians from the four villages was made by Pratt. He estimated that their number was 292 although he felt this figure was too high.19

The next piece of information about the Seminoles in Florida was not generated until 1880 when the Reverend Clay MacCauley was sent by the Bureau of American Ethnology to gather data about them. This information can be found In The Bureau of American Ethnology's 5th Annual Report.

MacCauley reported that in 1880 he found 208 Seminoles which represented thirty-seven families that lived in twenty-two camps which comprised five settlements.20 These people are either full bloods or are the products of Indian fathers and Black mothers.21 He reported that the men and women demonstrated superior physiques; they were tall and handsome.22 He stated that the Seminole did not weave their own fabrics, but relied on fabrics manufactured by the White man.23 His description of their dress will be presented as written:

"But how is this people clothed? While the clothing of the Seminole is simple and scanty, it is ample for the needs and suitable to the life he leads. The material of which the clothing is made are now chiefly fabrics manufactured by the white man: calico, cotton cloth, ginghams, and sometimes flannels. They also use some materials prepared by themselves, as deer and other skins. Of ready made articles of wear found in the white trader's store, they buy small woolen shawls, brilliantly colored cotton handkerchiefs, now and then light woolen blankets, and sometimes, lately, though very seldom, shoes.

"The costume of the Seminole warrior at home consists of a shirt, neckerchief, a turban, a breech cloth24, and very rarely moccasins. On but one Indian in camp did I see more than this; on many, I saw less. The shirt is made of some figured or striped cotton cloth, generally of quiet colors. It hangs from the neck to the knees, the narrow, rolling collar being closely buttoned about the neck, the narrow wristbands of the roomy sleeves buttoned about the wrists. The garment opens from the front for a few inches, downward from the collar, and is pocketless. A belt of leather or buckskin usually engirdles the man's waist, and from it are suspended one or more pouches, in which powder, bullets, pocket knife, a piece of flint, a small quantity of paper, and like things for use in hunting are carried. From the belt hang also one or more hunting knives, each nearly ten inches in length. I questioned one of the Indians about having no pockets in his shirt, pointing out to him the wealth in this respect in the white man's garments, and tried to show him how on his shirt, as on mine, these convenient receptacles could be placed, and to what straights he was put to carry his pipe, money, and trinkets. He showed little interest in my proposed improvement on his dress.

"Having no pockets, the Seminole is obliged to submit to several inconveniences; for instance, he wears his handkerchief tied around his neck. I have seen as many as six, even eight, handkerchiefs tied around his throat, their knotted ends pendant over his breast; as a rule they are bright red and yellow things, of whose possession and number he is quite proud. Having no pockets, the Seminole, only here and there one excepted, carries whatever money he obtains from time to time in a knotted corner of one or more of his handkerchiefs.

"The next article of the man's ordinary costume is the turban. this is a remarkable structure and gives to its wearer much of his unique appearance. At present, it is made of one or more small shawls. These shawls are generally woolen and copied in figure and color from the plaid of some Scotch clan. They are so folded that they are about 3 inches wide and as long as the diagonal fold of the fabric. They are then one or more of them successively, wrapped tightly around the head, the top of the head remaining bare; the last end of the last shawl is tucked skillfully and firmly away, without the use of pins, somewhere in the many folds of the turban. The structure when finished looks like a section of a decorated cylinder crowded down upon the man's head. I examined one of these turbans and found it a rather firm piece of work, made of several shawls wound into seven concentric rings. It was over 20 inches in diameter, the shell of the cylinder being perhaps 7 inches thick and 3 inches in width. The headdress in the southern settlements is regularly worn in the camps and sometimes on the hunt. While hunting, however, it seems to be the general custom for the warriors to go bareheaded. At the northern camps, a kerchief bound about the head frequently takes the place of the turban in everyday life, but on dress or festive occasions, at both the northern and southern settlements, this curious turban is the customary covering for the head of the Seminole brave. Having no pockets in his dress, he has discovered that the folds of his turban may be put to a pocket's use. Those who use tobacco (I say `those' because the tobacco habit is by no means universal among the red men of Florida) frequently carry their pipes and other articles in their turbans.

"When the Seminole warrior makes his rare visits to the white man's settlements, he frequently adds to his scanty camp dress leggins and moccasins.

"In the camps I saw but one Indian wearing leggins; he, however, is in every way a peculiar character among his people, and is objectionably favorable to the white man and the whiteman's ways.........The material of which the leggins of the Seminole are usually made is buckskin. I saw, however, one pair of leggins made of a bright red flannel, and ornamented along the outer seams with a blue and white cross striped braid. The moccasins, also, are made of buckskin, of either a yellow or dark red color. They are made to lace high about the lower part of the leg, the lacing running from below the instep upward. As showing what changes are going on among the Seminole, I may mention that a few of them possess shoes, and one is even the owner of a pair of frontier store boots. The blanket is not often worn by the Florida Indians. Occasionally, in their cool weather, a small shawl, of the kind made to do service in the turban, is thrown about the shoulders. Oftener a piece of calico or white cotton cloth, gathered about the neck, becomes the extra protection against mild coolness in their winter."25

     Costume Plate # 39 39Seminole women sm.jpg (8359 bytes)
As can be seen the style of the man's shirt did not evolve much since the 1850's or earlier. Actually, this one garment hardly evolved at all since the Indians first adapted it from the dress of the White man in the eighteenth century. The isolation of these Seminoles seemed to have kept their dress relatively stable. However, pouches that hung from the waist seem to have replaced those that hung from bandolier straps. For everyday wear, they were simply more practical.

In MacCauley's analysis of the Seminoles's lack of pockets in their garments, he shows his ethnocentricity by assuming the Seminoles's needs in his environment were the same as the White man's.

MacCauley stated that the design of the shawls used to construct the turbans was basically a Scotch plaid. However, since historically turbans were made from other fabrics and/or with different designs, one cannot generalize that Scotch plaid was all that was used.

It should be apparent that the male Florida Seminole dress basically still reflected the dress worn by the Southeastern Indians before and at the turn of the eighteenth century. However, the male Seminole had made some changes to adapt it to his isolated life style. An example of this is the discarding of the pouch attached to the bandolier strap and the substitution of a pouch fastened to his belt. What is extremely interesting historically is that his base attire consisted of a shirt, originally adopted from White men's shirts, and the breech cloth - clothes from two cultures blended together and modified.

       Costume Plate # 4040Seminole children sm.jpg (6278 bytes)
Absent from MacCauley's report is any mention of beaded pouches, bandolier bags, belts, etc. Since MacCauley mentions some very mundane features of a Seminole's life, the omission could be significant. In addition, MacCauley described arts and industrial arts. In neither area is any mention of beaded ornamentation present. Nor are beaded articles mentioned when he described the ornamentation worn by the Seminole. Thus, it is probably safe to assume that the Seminoles in the 1880's were not decorating items with beaded embroidery. While braided material was applied to clothes as a form of ornamentation, MacCauley does not make any reference to finger woven or braided belts being worn by the men.

"The costume of the women is hardly more complex than that of the men. It consisted, apparently, of but two garments, one of which for lack of a better English word, I name a short shirt, the other a long skirt. The shirt is cut quite low at the neck and is just long enough to cover the breasts. Its sleeves are buttoned close about the wrists. The garment is otherwise buttonless, being made wide enough at the neck for it to be easily put on or taken off over the head. The conservatism of the Seminole Indian is shown in nothing more clearly than in the use, by women, of the much abbreviated covering for the upper part of the bodies. The women are noticeably modest, yet it does not seem to have occurred to them that by making a slight change in their upper garment they might free themselves from frequent embarrassment. In going about their work they were constantly engaged in what our street boys would call `pulling down their vests.' This may have been done because a stranger's eyes were upon them; but I noticed that in rising or sitting down, or at work, it was a perpetually renewed effort on their part to lengthen by a pull the scanty covering hanging over their breasts. Gathered about the waist is the other garment, the skirt, extending to the feet and often touching the ground. This is usually made of some dark colored calico or gingham. The cord by which the petticoat is fastened is often drawn so tightly about the waist that it gives that part of the body a rather uncomfortable appearance. This is especially noticeable because the shirt is so short that a space of two or more inches on the body is left uncovered between it and the skirt. I saw no woman wearing moccasins, and I was told that the women never wear them. For headwear the women have nothing, unless the cotton cloth, or small shawl, used about the shoulders in cool weather, and which at other times is thrown or drawn over the head, may be called that."26

"The clothing of both men and women is ordinarily more or less ornamented. Braids and strips of cloth of various colors are used and wrought upon the garments into odd and sometimes quite tasteful shapes. The upper parts of the shirts of the women are usually embroidered with yellow, red, and brown braid. Sometimes as many as five of these braids lie side by side, parallel with the upper edges of the garment or dropping into a sharp angle between the shoulders. Occasionally a very narrow cape, attached, I think, to the shirt, and much ornamented with braids or stripes, hangs just over the shoulders and back. The same kinds of material used for ornamenting the shirt are also in decorating the skirt above the lower edge of the petticoat [synonymous with skirt in this context]. The women embroider along the edge, with their braids and the narrow colored stripes, a border of diamond and square shaped figures, which is often and elaborate decoration to the dress. in like manner, many of the shirts of the men are made pleasing to the eye. I saw no ornamentation in curves: it was always in straight lines and angles."27

There is no precedent historically for the adaptation of a long sleeved garment that leaves the midriff bare. Coolness cannot be a factor for the length of the sleeves had to be confining and awkward, especially in a hot climate. It must be remembered, at all times, that the Indians were individualistic and small changes in garment style, color, trim, etc. did not necessarily represent changes in style nor in evolution of the garments.

"Girls from seven to ten years old are clothed with only a petticoat, and boys about the same age wear only a shirt. Younger children are, as a rule, entirely naked. If clothed at any time, it is only during exceptionally cool weather or when taken by their parents on a journey to the homes of the palefaces.  

"The love of personal adornment shows itself among the Seminole as among other human beings."28

"The coarse, brilliant, black hair of which they are possessors is taken care of in an odd manner. The men cut all their hair close to the head, except a strip about an inch wide, running over the front of the scalp from temple to temple, [like a fringe] and another strip of about the same width, perpendicular to the former, crossing the crown of the head to the nape of the neck. At each temple a heavy tuft is allowed to hang to the bottom of the lobe of the ear. The long hair of the strip crossing to the neck is generally gathered and braided into two ornamental queues. I did not learn that these Indians are in the habit of plucking the hair from their faces. I noticed, however, that the mustache is commonly worn among them and that a few of them are endowed with a rather bold looking combination of mustache and imperial [goatee].... For some reason there seems to be a much greater neglect of the care of the hair, and, indeed of the whole person, in the northern than in the southern camps.

"The women dress their hair more simply than the men. From a line crossing the forehead from ear to ear the hair is gathered up and bound, just above the neck, in a knot somewhat like that often made by the civilized woman, the Indian woman's hair being wrought more into the shape of a cone, sometimes quite elongated and sharp at the apex. A piece of bright ribbon is commonly used at the end as a finish to the structure. The front hair hangs down over the forehead and along the cheeks in front of the ears, being what we call `banged.'......Among the little Indian girls the hair is simply braided in a queue and tied with a ribbon, as we often see the hair upon the heads of our school children."29

"My attention was called to the remarkable use of beads among these Indian women, young and old. It seems to be the ambition of the Seminole squaws to gather about their necks as many strings of beads as can be hung there and as they can carry. They are particular as to the quality of the beads they wear. They are satisfied with nothing meaner than a cut glass bead, about a quarter of an inch or more in length, generally of some shade of blue, and costing (so I was told by a trader at Miami) $1.75 a pound. Sometimes, but not often, one sees beads of an inferior quality worn.

"These beads must be burdensome to the wearers....Moki [Young Tiger Tail's number one wife] was the proud wearer of certainly not fewer than two hundred strings of good sized beads. She had six quarts (probably a peck of the beads) gathered about her neck, hanging down her back, down upon her breasts, filling the space under her chin, and covering her neck up to her ears. It was an effort for her to move her head. She, however, was only a little, if any, better off in her possessions than most of the others. Others were equally burdened. Even girl babies are favored by their proud mammas with varying quantity of the coveted neck wear. The cumbersome beads are said to be worn by night as well as by day."30

The wearing of multitudinous strings of beads did not start with the Seminoles. Historically it can be seen in other groups of peoples. The early Europeans found that an Indian woman's wealth was measured in strings of wampum shells and many of the early (in the context of European contact) Southeastern women wore multiple strands of beads. It is obvious that to the Seminoles as well as to earlier Southeastern Indians a multitude of beads not only represent decoration but societal status. Moki, described by MacCauley was the wife of the ruler of a village - Young Tiger Tail, son of another ruler called Tiger Tail.31

"Conspicuous among the other ornaments worn by women are silver disks, suspended in a curve across the shirt fronts, under and below the beads. These disks are made by men, who may be called `jewelers of the tribe, 'from silver quarters and half dollars. The pieces of money are pounded quite thin, made concave, pierced with holes, and ornamented by a groove lying just inside the circumference. Large disks made from half dollars may be called `breast shields.' They are suspended one above each breast. Among the disks other ornaments are often suspended. One young woman I noticed gratifying her vanity with not only eight disks made of silver quarters, but also with three polished copper rifle shells, one bright brass thimble, and a buckle hanging among them. Of course the possession of these and like treasures depends upon the ability and desire of one and another to secure them.

"Ear rings are not generally worn by the Seminoles. Those worn are usually made of silver and are of home manufacture. The ears of most of the Indians, however, appear to be pierced, and, as a rule, the ears of the women are pierced many times; for what purpose I did not discover. In most of these holes I noticed bits of palmetto wood, about a fifth of an inch in length and in diameter the size of a large pin. Seemingly they were placed there to remain only while the puncture was healing.

"Piercing the ears excepted, the Florida Indians do not now mutilate their bodies for beauty's sake. They no longer pierce the lips or the nose; nor do they use paint upon their persons, I am told, except at their great annual festival, the Green Corn Dance, and upon the faces of their dead.

"Nor is the wearing of finger rings more common than that of rings for the ears. The finger rings I saw were all made of silver and showed good workmanship. Most of them were made with large elliptical tablets on them, extending from knuckle to knuckle. These also were home-made.

"I saw no gold ornaments. Gold, even gold money, does not seem to be considered of much value by the Seminole.....I was told that the Seminole are peculiar in wishing to possess nothing that is not genuine of its apparent kind. Traders told me that, so far as the Indians know, they will buy of them only what is the best either of food or of material for wear or ornament.

"The ornaments worn by the men which are most worthy of attention are crescents, varying in size and value. these are generally about five inches long, an inch in width at the widest part, and of the thickness of ordinary tin. These articles are also made from silver coins and are of home manufacture. They are worn suspended from the neck by cords, in the cusps of the crescents, one below another, at distances apart of perhaps two and a half inches. Silver wristlets are used by the men for their adornment. they are fastened about the wrists by cords or thongs passing through holes in the ends of the metal. Belts, and turbans too, are often ornamented with fanciful devices wrought out of silver. It is not customary for the Indian men to wear these ornaments in everyday camp life. They appear with them on festive occasion or when they visit some trading post."32

This last sentence is important because much of the recorded aspects of Seminole, as well as other Indian dress, is garnered from drawings, daguerreotypes, and later photographs taken in honor of an occasion.

From photographs mainly from the Anthropological Archives at the Smithsonian Natural History Museum, one can see an evolution and/or variations of Seminole dress. One must be careful to try to sift out those photographs that were studio posed using garments that were not necessarily worn by a Seminole outside of the studio. Other times, the dates that the photographs were taken is not always clear. Unfortunately this is true of the following three photographs. Most probably they were taken in the early eighteen nineties due to some of the clothes worn by the Seminole men. The dates on them are 1877-1895. Thus, the exact year in which the pictures were taken is not known.

They show the women wearing long skirts of a solid, printed or striped dark fabric. The bottom of the skirt was no longer decorated. About fifteen to eighteen inches from the ground commenced a flounce usually of the same color. Above the flounce were bands of braid, fabric bands, or decorative stitching in contrasting colors. The short shirts had the wide cape-like collars that ended in a point down the back. This collar had a higher neckline than the bodice and extended over the shoulders. The length of the front section ended around the bustline while the back point could reach the waist. In some instances it looked as if the collars were separate from the shirt. This was especially true of those of a different color. Most appeared to be an integral part of the bodice. These bodices still came to the midriff and were loose fitting. There was always some type of decorative trim around the cape-like collar. It was ruffled and of the same or a contrasting color. All the women wore numerous beads around their necks and silver disks sewn to the front of their shirts.33

Before addressing the dress of the men in the pictures, it is important to note that not all the bodices worn by the women looked the same. In one of the pictures, it appears that the cape-like collar was absent. Instead, the two women pictured were wearing thin shawls over their shoulders.34

The men in these photographs are all dressed differently. One wore high moccasins with the seam up the front and deeply fringed buckskin leggings. He had on a wide but not too high turban. He had on a long-full sleeved shirt that reached to his thighs and was tight at the wrist. It was cinched with a belt that had a buckle on it. Around his neck was a knotted handkerchief. Over the shirt and open was a robe or hunting frock of a patterned material. The sleeves of this frock only reached to the man's elbows. Two of the other men had on turbans, each one being different. They were barefoot but also wore shirts. However, both wore two other garments over their shirts. One had on a white man's double lapelled vest, buttoned down the front and a mid thigh hunting frock over it. This man had many scarves tied around his throat. The other man had on a short striped vest-type garment. Over this he wore a mid-thigh hunting frock with pieced applique work adorning it. One article of their attire that definitely showed a change was in the length of the sleeves of their outer garment. The sleeves reached to a little below their elbows. This is a definite change from the long-sleeved hunting frock.

In one of the photographs are two very small children under the age of seven. The little boy was dressed in a shirt that reached to his knees, but the little girl was dressed in a long checkered one piece dress. It had long sleeves and appears to have had a bodice attached at the waist to the skirt.35

The isolated lives of the Seminoles Indians continued until 1891. Since 1888, The Women's National Indian Association had been concerned with the living conditions of the Florida Indians. They believed that land should be purchased specifically for them. In March of 1891, their President, Mrs. Amelia S. Quinton, decided that she needed to meet the Florida Indians and see for herself. She went with two other ladies and a gentleman. They purchased 400 acres of land in Lee County and started missionary work. That same year, the Governor of Florida donated certain swamp and overflowed lands to the Seminoles. The National government, then, furnished some farming implements and work was started to try to induce the Seminole from their isolated camps to the land purchased for them. The missionaries wanted to educate them and teach them husbandry and farming skills. Within the next few years regulated trading stations were established to prevent the dishonest treatment the Seminole had previously received from some of the traders. Prior to this a sawmill had been established.36

Trading posts were not new to Florida and the Seminole. They, however, reached their height in the 1890's because of the demand for alligator hides and the feathers of plume birds.37

In 1900, Mrs. Stranahan, the wife of a trader, recalled

"....seeing as many as 100 canoes coming down the river loaded with Indian families, their trade goods, cook ware, and animals. These large groups might come in as often as every six weeks, depending upon the supply of game and where they were hunting. There were also families of Indians living in nearby camps....who traded at the store more frequently and did not stay as long. Those who came would generally stay four days to a week camping on the grounds."38

MacCauley's description of the dress of the Seminole in 1880 is critical to an understanding of the evolution and change. Two other people described the Seminoles in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.

Coe's Red Patriots was first published in 1898. He described them at about the same period of time. Each author highlighted slightly different aspects of their dress. Like MacCauley, Coe devoted much space in his book to describing their dress:

"The common attire of the Seminole men is unlike that of any other inhabitants of America. Besides the gingham or calico shirt, belted at the waist and reaching nearly to the knees, as noted by Mr. MacCauley in 1880, many of the men wear an overvest of woolen or cotton cloth. When they are at home, or off hunting, their lower limbs are commonly without covering, but they are becoming shy about visiting the white settlements in this fashion, and on such occasions most of them now wear buckskin leggings or regular trousers.

"The male Seminole has always been partial to a turban, made of neatly folded shawls of bright colors and always open at the top. At the present day the turban is much larger than it was in Osceola's time. While the greater number still adhere to this curious headdress, for several years past ordinary hats of felt or straw have been adopted by many, especially by the younger members of the tribe. The plumes of the white and the blue heron are often added to the turbans, giving it a picturesque appearance, As a rule, the males wear their hair cut short, with the forelock `banged,' though some have a small plait or cue, commencing at the crown. Shoes are quite common among the men and boys, although many still wear moccasins, while other go without either.

"While the dress of the men has undergone a considerable change within the past twenty years, that of the women remains the same.

"A long skirt, and an absurdly short sack waist [called a short shirt by MacCauley] which fails to meet the other garment, is the universal feminine fashion. To this is sometimes added a small shoulder cape, worn over the waist. The material used is calico or gingham of bright colors, made up in a showy manner, No females of any age wear covering on either head or feet. Boys and girls dress like their parents. The Seminoles are all fond of personal ornaments, as formerly; a remarkable habit of the women and girls, in this connection, is the wearing of several pounds of colored beads, in coils, about their necks. Other ornaments include ear rings and silver coin, the latter being commonly attached to one or more of the lower strings of beads."39

It is interesting to note that MacCauley stated that few wore earrings although he must have observed that this lack of ear ornamentation was not typical nor did it have a precedence. Coe's statement that earrings were commonly worn is more characteristic of the ornamentation worn by Native Americans from even before European contact.

In 1896 Minnie Moore-Willson's book, The Seminoles of Florida was first published. She described the Seminole dress at that time period. The following descriptions were written by Minnie Moore-Willson.

"The dress of the Seminole chief consists of a tunic embraced by a bright sash, close fitting leggins of deer skin, which are embellished with delicately cut thongs of the same material from the waist to the ankle where they meet the moccasins."40

William Sturtevant depicted them as having a long fringe that extended from the top of the leggings on the outside to the bottom. The leggings were tailored to follow the contours of the leg. In addition, he showed another band of fringe placed probably under the knee. This band of fringe was placed at an angle whose lowest point was opposite the outside edge. (Where the inner seam would be if there was one.)41

"The moccasin is also made of deerskin [Sturtevant drew them as being made of one piece with the seam up the center and having ankle flaps. See above citation page.]...A picturesque feature of the dress is the turban...It is worn almost constantly; and is made impromptu from shawls or colossal handkerchiefs wrapped round and round the head and then secured in shape by a band, often made of beaten silver which encircles the whole brilliant effect. With young braves, the more important the occasion, the more enormous the turban. Another characteristic of the dress is the number of handkerchiefs worn, knotted loosely about the neck. Regardless of the temperature, the Indian adorns himself with six, eight or perhaps a dozen of bright bandannas, exhibiting great pride in the number he possesses. A belt made of buckskin completes the costume. From this are suspended a hunting knife, a revolver, a pouch in which is carried ammunition and small articles necessary for the chase."42

It is important to note that Moore-Willson also did not make any reference to bead embroidered bandolier straps and bags or finger woven sashes.

"The hair [of the male] is cut close to the head, except the traditional scalp lock of his fathers, which is plaited and generally concealed under the large turban that adorns his head."43

"The dress of the squaw is very simple, consisting of a straight, full skirt, made long enough to hide the feet. The upper part of the dress is a long sleeved, loose fitting waist, [called a short shirt by MacCauley] which fails to meet the waist band of the skirt by about two inches; this oddly fashioned garment is cut large enough in the neck to be put on or taken off over the head. A large collar, fashioned after the collarettes worn by the fashionables of the season of 1896, completes the toilet."44

The Seminole women were wearing cape-like collars prior to 1896. While Anglo women did wear removable cape-like or shawl-like collars since at least the eighteen seventies, they were not similar.45 Since the Seminoles were so isolated, it is probable that the collar evolved from their wearing shawls or handkerchiefs draped around their necks and not from American fashions. However, this, unfortunately, is only a guess based on the life style of the Seminoles in Florida from the onset of the first Seminole war and the evolution of their dress as depicted by both authors and photographers..

"A Seminole woman wears no head dress of any description. Even when visiting the white settlements they go with their heads uncovered. Neither do they wear moccasins, at home or abroad, in winter or in summer. They are always bare-footed.

"Vanity and coquetry are inborn in the female character. The Seminole maiden whose life has been spent among the swamps `far from the maddening' crowd and fashion's emporium still practices the arts of her pale faced sister. She affects the bang and the psyche knot [Euro/American fashion term] with as much ease as the New York belle, and with such metropolitan airs soon captivates her forest lover. The same passionate desire for gold and jewels, ever uppermost in the heart of the civilized white woman, be she peasant or queen, shows itself in the Seminole squaw."46

When Moore-Willson wrote this book, sentimentality was characteristic of a style of writing. Whether she observed these sentiments in Seminole women, or transferred them from White American culture cannot be known. It has been stated by other authors that the Seminoles did not desire gold.

"Silver breast-plates, made from quarters and half dollars, beaten into various designs add to their personal adornment on festal occasions. What the turban is to the brave, such is the necklace of beads to the woman. It is her chief glory and is worn constantly. Her ambition seems to be to gather as many strings of these brightly colored beads about the neck as she can carry, often burdening herself with several pounds. Even the wee tots are adorned with small strings of the much prized necklace."47

Even after the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, the missionaries continued to try to educate and Christianize the Seminoles.

In 1910 an anthropologist, Alanson Skinner, representing the American Museum of Natural History went into the land of the Seminole to gather data and ethnological information. In his "Notes on the Florida Seminole" published in American Anthropologist in 1913, he stated that

"...we visited a number of Seminole villages, all but one of which, according to the natives, had never been visited by white men."48

The Seminole, though, were familiar with the "white man's towns" because they came there to trade.49

In 1910, Skinner believed the Seminole population to be not more than 325.50 He stated that they were conservative and dressed "habitually in native costume."51

"The regular everyday dress of the Seminole man consists of a bright, varicolored, calico shirt, narrow at the waist and wrists, with the expanding skirt reaching to the knees."52

Once again, the dress of the male Seminole has undergone a change. Previously, the shirts were drawn in at the waist by a belt or a sash. The whole shirt was the same width. During a period of about fourteen years, judging by the descriptions in the Moore-Willson book, the male shirt changed dramatically. The straight rectangular shirt with attached sleeves and an opening in the front had been worn by the Indians since the seventeen hundreds. The reason for this change cannot be definitely determined.

Hilda J. Davis noted that

"......shortly before the turn of the century the Seminole women began to buy the hand-operated machines at the trading posts." She then stated that "It was not long after this that the styles of both men's and women's clothing began to show decided changes."53

Sturtevant claimed that this newer type of shirt was a Mikasuki invention as was also patchwork.54 It is not clear how Sturtevant defined patchwork or whether he was only referring to it among the Seminole Indians. Appliqueing small pieces of material onto a garment has a much older history.

This shirt was

"rarely worn by the Creek-speaking minority and then usually as trade items or made by the Mikasuki wives of the Creek men. The big shirt begins to appear in photographs taken around 1900. At first it is plain without patchwork decorations."55

Skinner also stated that:

"Around the [man's] neck are usually worn a number of bandana handkerchiefs. The older men wear a shirt much like the corresponding garment of civilization, which is not gathered at the waist. The elders also usually wear a turban made of a shawl or a series of bandanas wound together and held in place with a broad band of beaten silver. On special occasions, egrets or other plumes are thrust under the band at the sides.

"The ceremonial costume consists of a turban, a shirt of the everyday sort, though silk is used for gala apparel, a calico coat with designs in appliqué, deerskin leggings dyed a rich reddish brown, and moccasins that often have a round flap at the toe, which, except that it is soft, reminds one of the protectors on Apache moccasins. 

"To this costume is added an array of woven bead or yarn belts. The beaded belts are woven in angular figures, in contradistinction to the otherwise similar circular designs of the Creeks, and usually symbolizing some life form.

"The women wear a full-length skirt girt about the waist, and a cape with sleeves attached."56

Skinner's terminology "cape with sleeves attached" shows in itself the evolution of the upper garment worn by Seminole women. While one can describe the evolution of the "cape with sleeves attached," why it developed could not be ascertained by the authors. In this instance, an educated guess would not be meaningful. While initially it was a short shirt with sleeves and a cape-type collar, by 1910, the cape aspect of the shirt had started to be its prominent aspect.

Skinner continued in his description of Seminole women's clothes.

"As the waist or cape does not connect with the skirt, a broad band of copper-colored skin is always visible between the upper and lower garments on the older women. Around their necks they carry enormous necklaces, weighing often from ten to fifteen pounds, and even more. The heavy beads are coiled about their shoulders and throats until their chins are sometimes fairly forced skyward, and causing them to look as if they were being choked.

"For ceremonial purposes their garments are the same, except that then they wear capes that are bedecked with hammered silver bangles and brooches, and, in the dance, knee leggings to which tortoise-shell rattles are attached, are worn. The costumes of the children are invariably the same as those of their elders, save that little girls sometimes wear a single-piece gown with an appliqué collar on festival occasions.

"The men now cut their hair short after the fashion of the whites, except that they are prone to leave a lock before the ears. It is only a short time since they have ceased to wear a double scalp-lock; indeed a few conservatives still maintain the custom.

"The women usually wear their hair coiled on the top of their heads, but one widow, still in mourning, allowed hers to hang loose on her shoulders."57


1. James W. Covington, The Seminoles of Florida, p. 108.

2. James W. Covington (ed), Tequesta, volume XXIV, 1964, " The Florida Seminoles in 1847", p.49.

3. James W. Covington, The Seminoles of Florida, p. 110.

4. James W. Covington (ed), Tequesta, volume XXIV, 1964, " The Florida Seminoles in 1847", p. 49.

5. Ibid., 110-126.

6. James W. Covington, The Seminoles of Florida, p.124.

7. James W. Covington, The Seminoles of Florida, p. 125. The picture is entitled "Billy Bowlegs and his Retinue", New York, 1852.

8. The authors of this book have chosen to continue using the words hunting-frock, robe, etc. that were used at the time period rather then call them by more modern names.

9. Harper's Weekly, "Billy Bowlegs in New Orleans", June 12, 1858, pp. 376-378.

10. All descriptions are taken from Harper's Weekly of June 12, 1858, pp. 376-378.

11. William Todd Allen, Diaries spanning 1852, 1849, & 1853, p. 7. Courtesy of Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, & Tilden Foundations.

12. James W. Covington, The Seminoles of Florida, p. 127.

13. Charles H. Coe, Red Patriots, p. 217.

14. Ibid., p. 219.

15. James W. Covington, The Seminoles of Florida, p. 145.

16. Charles H. Coe, Red Patriots, p. 223. James W. Covington, The Seminoles of Florida, p.144.

17. R. H. Pratt, (editor William Sturtevant) "R. H. Pratt's report on the Seminole in 1879", Florida Anthropologist, 9:1, 1956, pp. 7-8.

18. Ibid., p. 8.

19. Ibid., p. 13.

20. Clay MacCauley, BAE 5th Annual Report, p. 477.

21. Ibid., p. 479.

22. Ibid., pp. 481-482.

23, Ibid., p. 517.

24. The breech cloth was worn under the shirt and hidden by it.

25. Clay MacCauley, BAE 5th Annual Report, pp. 482-485.

26. Ibid., pp. 485-486.

27. Ibid., p. 487.

28. Ibid., p. 486.

29. Ibid., pp. 486-487.

30. Ibid., pp. 487-488.

31. William Sturtevant, "R. H. Pratt's Report on the Seminole in 1879", fn 8, p. 18.

32. Clay MacCauley, BAE 5th Annual Report, pp. 488-489.

33. Anthropological Archives. Negatives 45,331, 45,331-C, 45,491.

34. Ibid., Negative 45,331.

35. Ibid., Negatives 45,331-C and 45,491.

36. Charles H. Coe, Red Patriots, pp. 228-237.

37. Harry A. Kersey, Jr. "Pelts, Plumes, and Hides: White Traders Among the Seminole Indians 1890-1930," The Florida Historical Quarterly, p. 252.

38. Ibid., p. 254.

39. Charles H. Coe, Red Patriots, pp. 244-245.

40. Minnie Moore-Wilson, The Seminoles of Florida, p. 60.

41. William Sturtevant, Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts. The diagram of the leggings follows page 161 of the text.

42. Minnie Moore-Wilson, The Seminoles of Florida, pp. 60-61.

43. Ibid., p. 60.

44. Ibid., p. 61.

45. Joan Severa, Dressed for the Photographer, pp. 367, 389, 408, etc.

46. Minnie Moore-Wilson, The Seminoles of Florida, pp. 61-62.  

47. Ibid., pp. 61-62.

48. Alanson Skinner, "Notes on the Florida Seminole", American Anthropologist, volume XV, p. 63.

49. Ibid., p. 63.

50. Ibid., p. 64.

51. Ibid., p. 64.

52. Ibid., p. 65.

53. Hilda J. Davis, "The History of Seminole Clothing and Its Multi-Colored Designs," American Anthropologist, volume 57, p. 975.

54. William Sturtevant, Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts, p. 172.

55. Ibid., p. 172.

56. Alanson Skinner, "Notes on the Florida Seminole", American Anthropologist, volume XV, pp. 65-66.

57. Ibid., pp. 66-67.