The Creek Confederacy and Adjacent Smaller Tribes. The Creek Confederacy was a fluid coalition of tribes living in the area of the Southeast in what are now the states of Georgia and Alabama. In 1708 Captain Thomas Nairne, a Carolina trader and statesman, went on a secret mission to try to change the allegiance of those Indians favoring the French. His aim was to turn them against the French and retain their allegiance for the British. During his mission, he kept journals in which he described ethnographically many of the Indian tribes he encountered. Soon after leaving Charles Town in the company of another trader, Thomas Welch, he encountered the Talapoosies who lived on the Talapoosa river in Alabama. He related little about their dress, other than to state that "...it's impossible for a stranger to Distinguish them [the Micos or Chiefs] by their garb and Fashion which is nothing Differs from the rest."1 It is interesting to note the varied accounts of the finery of the dress of the headmen and/or chiefs of some of the tribes. In all probability, when dressed in non-festival garb or when not specifically meeting with the White Man, they wore similar clothes to other male members of their group. Otherwise the above statement would be in direct contrast to other accounts. Before James Oglethorpe's arrival in Georgia, the South Carolinians had been trading with the Indians of Georgia and Alabama. In 1725, Captain Glover did a census of the towns of the Creek Confederacy with which the South Carolinians traded:2
With the colonization of Georgia in 1733, more information on the Creeks and other tribes in the geographical area became more abundant. One of the major sources for early eighteenth century ethnographic information about the Georgia Indians was furnished by Philip George Friedrich von Reck, a German who arrived in Georgia from Europe in 1736. Von Reck kept a detailed journal of his trip and of the flora, fauna, Indians, etc. that he observed in the new world. He, also, was a gifted artist and did about fifty water colors and pencil sketches of what he observed. He conferred with the Indians about his drawings and identified objects in them in their Native tongues. Von Reck's destination was the town of Ebenezer, approximately 20 miles from Savannah on the Ebenezer River. Near to Ebenezer was a Yuchi Town. The inhabitants of this town comprised the bulk of Indian information found in Von Reck's drawings and journal. Von Reck described the basic physical characteristics and dress of the Yuchi Indians in two places in his journal. In his description of the dress of the women, he failed to be consistent. When he used the term "they," he was usually referring to the males Indians. In his first full verbal description of them, he stated: "The Indians are of moderate stature, robust and strong. Their skin is black-yellow, which is due not only to the sun but rather to their unusual manner of living. They color their faces with all sorts of colors, especially black shaded with red. When they go to war they bedaub their faces with all kinds of colors which they think best for giving them a frightful appearance before their enemies. They always go with uncovered heads and wear short black hair, which they tie up on the crown of their heads. When they appear in their ornaments they generally strew white feathers on their heads and stick plumes into their ears, which they consider a token of courage, and tie their short hair with a red band. Each nation has its own manner of cutting its hair, thereby they can distinguish one from the other. "Most of the men and women are marked with stripes on their throats, faces, and bodies. They wear corals around their neck and rings in their ears or, as I have said, brightly colored feathers....They wear no beards, and they tear out what little bit does grow. Instead of trousers, which they consider indecent, [refer to Adair's mention of effeminacy and breeches] they cover themselves with a short blanket, and at times they wrap their body in a deer skin or woollen sheep quilt. When they go hunting they wear white woollen leggings which reach from the foot to the thigh and which protect them from the rattlesnakes, which cannot bite through a thick woollen cloth. They cut their shoes out of deer skin and lace them on their feet."3 "The women are completely clothed, almost like the peasant women in Germany. But those who have no clothes cover themselves up completely with a woollen cloth and thereby show more modesty than the English ladies. They also go with uncovered heads and braid their hair, although widows let it hang in and around their faces."4 The dress of the men is partially consistent with other reports of the period except for the stipulation that the leggings worn for hunting were white and out of wool. It is not unusual to have had them made out of wool, but the Indians also made them from skins. However, this is the first mention that they were white in color. What also makes the above passages questionable is the description of the dress of the women. Further on in his journal, he described the women's dress in a manner that was more in keeping with the era and with the descriptions of others. In both descriptive passages, he was describing the same tribe of Indians. The only explanation for the inconsistency can be that the first group of Indians he described comprised a delegation of Yuchi who wanted an audience with Mr. Oglethorpe; while the second description resulted from a Busk ceremony in the Yuchi Indian village that Von Reck attended. However, the syntax in his journal relates to Indians or Yuchi in general and does not differentiate their dress as regards special ceremonies, meetings with the English, etc. The third explanation, which is sheer speculation, is that he did not write the first description since the second is consistent with his drawings. It is known that the Reverend Bolzius also kept a journal and some of the material was attributed to Von Reck instead of Bolzius.5 His second description of the Indians, written about one month after his first, is as follows: "The Indians are usually five to six feet tall, upright, with good feet, robust bones, yet delicate, fine, and longish fingers, and perfect breasts. No misshapen or deformed people are seen among them. Males and females have straight white teeth, and although the former continually smoke tobacco, they never have toothaches. Their hair is black. The men cut their hair off short, leaving a lock remaining exactly on the top of the head, and on the side a long lock hanging down over the shoulder; but the women keep their hair long and bind it with a ribbon. The men have little or no beard, because they pluck the hair out continually. Their body color is orange, brown, or coppery. White Indians are also seen, although very seldom. The children who have a European father and an Indian mother are always yellow or brown. "The men paint the face and chest, but the women only on the arms and chest. The figures on the chest are pricked in with a needle or other pointed instrument, until they bleed, and in them they sprinkle fine powder or charcoal dust which mixes in the blood, remains in the skin, and appears blue-black. [If the women were covered from head to toe as in his first description, he could have never seen the tattooing.] Red and blue are their favorite colors for bedaubing themselves on festival days. But when they paint their faces black and red, it is an indication that they have done injury or want to do so."6 "They go almost naked, except the males are covered with an apron in front and behind. The females wrap a piece of cloth around their hips, which reaches to their knees. [This statement is more in keeping with the Indian dress patterns of that period and also with Von Reck's drawings.] When it is cold, they envelope themselves in a fur or blanket. The head is never covered, except when someone receives an old hat as a present. When they go hunting, they wrap a piece of cloth around the legs and put on a pair of shoes which each makes for himself from a piece of dressed hide and which look like a pouch closed with a draw string. An old garment or shirt and all woollen and linen cloth they value highly, and, when such a thing is given them, they are eager to put it on, go about with it ostentatiously and let themselves wear rings or feathers. A few also have a ring and bead hanging down from the nose over the mouth.7 Von Reck not only described the Indians and their dress, but he drew pencil sketches and painted water colors of them, also. His paintings resemble the second description presented rather than the first. This first painting to be verbally described shows "The Georgia Indians in their natural habitat".8 It is of an Indian man and a woman. He is wearing a blue breech clout or flap; she a blue "skirt-like" garment to her knees. His hair is short and gathered in a small topknot; her hair is parted in the center and pulled back into a bun in the back a little higher than her ears. A red ribbon hangs from it. Both Indians are barefoot. She is tattooed with a wavy line across her chest under her breasts and arrows down her arm that end in two squarish shapes. The description states that the man has a ring in his nose and she is wearing a short coral necklace around her neck. This painting is very similar to one painted by De Batz in 1732 of a Tunica chief, his wife, and child. Although their is variation in the bodily adornment, the dress and style of painting are almost identical.9 In his painting of "The Indien King and Queen of the Uchi, Senkaitschi,"10 the king is presented facing towards the front while his wife is presented facing towards the rear. According to the text, "The King wears a buffalo skin; the queen wears a British blanket from Charles Town." Similarly, according to the water color, he wears a red loin cloth on a thong or string belt. The loin cloth is decorated on the bottom with two rows of stripes. His leggings are of a blue-green and come up to his thighs. They are then attached to his belt by a strip of material the same color as the leggings. The leggings appear to fit the leg snugly and are without fringe. He wears a garter under each knee which seem to serve a purely decorative function. On his feet are moccasins. His chest is tattooed with vertical stripes and one horizontal stripe across his chest connecting his shoulder blades. He appears to have a tattooed necklace as well as tattooed stripes across his cheek bones. ( Tomochichi, the Yamacraw Chief, also, had similar markings on his chest.11 Von Reck did a very detailed pencil sketch of the face of this Mico in which he detailed the tattooing and the painting.) Across his forehead is tattooed a wavy line whose purpose was to separate the red and black colors when he painted his face. It also shows in detail the tattooing on his chest and neck. The queen's hair is shoulder length and hanging straight. It appears that it might also be cut in bangs over her eyes. Her white blanket is edged in red stripes and her "skirt" comes to just below her knees. She is barefooted. The style of these two figures is, also, similar to that of de Batz. The Picture of "General" Kipahalgwa, The Supreme commander of the Yuchi nation, 12 according to the text, was a formal portrait. He is dressed as a warrior with black markings on his chest similar to those of the Yuchi King. In addition, he has a wide necklace marked at his throat. These markings were probably tattoos, especially since he wears a European white shirt, open, on his body. His face is marked with painted black bands and yellow zigzag marks on the forehead. Through his ears he wears white short and fluffy feathers and a hanging pearl. He is dressed in red, form fitting, dyed deer skin leggings to the thigh attached by means of a red deer skin garter to a waist belt [not shown]. The leggings are decorated with two white stripes down the side and appear to be gathered in at the ankle with a white band. The sides of the leggings might be fringed. On his feet he wears moccasins that go inside the leggings. The style of th3 picture, "Indians going a-hunting"13 is different than the other water colors previously mentioned. While the others had a heavy primitive feel, this one is lighter in tone and more delicate. Three Indians are picture in their hunting garb. Each is dressed differently. The Indian on the left is wearing a painted leather blanket. The leather appears to be light in color and the paintings are done in geometric shapes in shades of red. On his feet he wears moccasins, but he seems to be without leggings. His hair is worn in a small top knot. On his back he has a supply container, probably of leather. In his hand he carries a bow and an arrow. The middle Indian has on an English blanket. It appears to be white and bordered with red stripes of varying widths. On his legs he has blue leggings. These appear to be gathered about 2" above the ankle with about 2" below the gathers. On his feet he has moccasins. His hair is in the style of a small top knot with a short hanging lock over the right ear. He also carries a bundle on his back while he has a gun in his right hand and a rum bottle, according to the text, in his left hand. The man on the right is wearing, according to the text, "a leather coat, gaiters, but no trousers".14 The leather coat is white and is constructed like a tunic with inset sleeves and a small round neck. It reaches below the man's hips and appears to be decorated with brown vertical and horizontal lines. His gaiters or leggings are white and reach his thighs. They seem to be held up by staps attatched to the outside that go from the top to probably a belt which would be hidden by the leather coat. There is no indication that he is wearing a breech clout. However, it could be hidden by the shirt. He has a leather shot pouch at his left side which is held by a leather band slung over his right shoulder. He is smoking a long stemmed pipe which the text reports is of a European style. Both the Yuchi and the Yamacraw were mentioned frequently in reference to the settling of Georgia and in reference to Oglethorpe. An otter skin belt, possible a present to General Oglethorpe, was drawn by Von Reck and described in the text15. "Otter skin was a very precious material among the Indian, and this royal belt was made from such a skin, with deer bones as well. It might be one of the presents which the Yuchi Indians presented to General Oglethorpe at their meeting with him at Frederica. The `Knörpel' hanging down from the belt are deer hoofs which have dried and become a rattle."16 Many references to dances performed by the Indians and viewed by Oglethorpe and the colonists of Georgia are mentioned in the literature. Frances Moore described one given on the 26th of April, 1736. "The next day being the 26th, the Indians arrived, and camp'd by themselves near the Town, and made a War-dance, to which mr. Oglethorpe went, and all his people. They made a Ring, in the Middle of which four sat down, having little Drums made of kettles, cover'd with Deer-skins, upon which they beat and sung: Round them others danced, being naked to their Waists, round their Middles many Trinkets tied with Skins, and some with the Tails of Beasts hanging down behind them. They painted their Faces and Bodies, and their Hair was stuck with Feathers: In one hand they had a Rattle, in the other Hand the Feathers of an Eagle, made up like the Caduceus of Mercury."17 In 1739, a ranger who accompanied Oglethorpe wrote of a dance among the Lower Creeks in the town of Kawita that he witnessed. "At night we went to the Square to see the Indians dance, They dance around a large Fire by the Beating of a Small Drum and Six men singing; their Dress is very wild and frightfull their Faces painted with several sorts of Colours their Hair cut short (except three Locks one of wch [which] hangs over their Forehead like a horses fore Top) they paint the Short Hair and stick it full of Feathers, they have Balls and rattles about their Waist and Several things in their Hands, Their Dancing is of divers Gestures and Turnings of their Bodies in a great many frightful Postures. The Women are mostly naked to the Waist wearing only one short Peticoat wch [which] reaches from their Waist a little below their Knees, they are very nice in Smoothing their hair, it is So very long when untied that it reaches to the Calves of their Legs."18 Tomochichi, the Chief of the Yamacraw Indians, along with John and Mary Musgrove, who was part Creek, and who ran a trading post near Yamacraw Bluff played a very important role in the history of the Colony of Georgia. These people befriended James Oglethorpe when he first arrived and helped the colony establish itself. The Yamacraw Indians were a group that had been expelled from the Lower Creeks. Tomochichi [also spelled Tomo chi chi, Tomo-Cha-Chi etc.] was thought to have had possibly a Yamassee father and a Creek mother. An early gesture of Tomochichi toward the British was to give an unknown Gentleman a painted buffalo skin as a present. According to C.C. Jones, the unknown Gentleman was Oglethorpe.19 Tomochichi explained the design on the skin to the young man: "[It was] painted on the inside with the head and feathers of an eagle. He desired me to accept it because the eagle signified speed and the buffalo strength. That the English were as swift as the bird, and as strong as the beast, since like the first, they flew from the utmost parts of the earth over the vast seas, and like the second, nothing could withstand them. That the feathers of the eagle were soft, and signified love; the buffalo's skin warm, and signified protection; therefore he hoped that we would love and protect their [the Indians'] little families."20 In 1734, Tomochichi, other important Indians, and Johnny Musgrove, as interpreter, went to England to be presented to the King. Various magazines at the time described their visit. The Gentleman's Monthly Intelligencer Magazine described their clothing for the occasion as such: "They were very importunate to appear at court in the Manner they go in their own Country, which is only with a proper Covering round their Waist, all the rest of their Body being naked, but Mr. Oglethorpe whom they reverence as being their Father, recommending to them the Dress they have at present, they declined any farther Solicitations. Their faces were painted in a surprizing Manner, some half black, others triangular, and others with bearded Arrows instead of Whiskers. "Toma Chachi the Chief, and Senauki his wife, had on Scarlet Garments adorn'd with Furr and Gold Lace, two others were in Blue, and three more in Yellow, with Furr; all of them wore their own Indian shoes, and Boots, and had their Heads dress'd with feathers."21 A book, A Relation or Journal of A Late Expedition to the Gates of Saint Augustine in Florida, was written by a man named Kimber. It was published in 1744 and described the dress of the same Indians encountered by General Oglethorpe. In their native land they were described by Kimber accordingly: "As to their Figure, 'ts generally of the largest Size, well proportion'd, and robust, as you can imagine Persons nurs'd up in manly Exercises can be. Their Colour is swarthy, copper Hue, their Hair generally black, all round their Foreheads and Temples. They paint their Faces and Bodies, with Black, red, or other Colours, in a truly diabolic Manner; or, to speak more rationally, much like the former uncultivated inhabitants of Britain, whom Tacitus mentions. Their Dress is a Skin or Blanket, tied, or loosely cast, over their Shoulders; a shirt which they never wash, and which is consequently greasy and black to the last Degree; a flap, before and behind, to cover their Privities, of red or blue Bays, hanging by a girdle of the same; Boots about their Legs, of Bays also; and what they call Morgissons, or Pumps of deer or Buffalo Skin, upon their Feet. Their Arms and Ammunition, a common Trading-Gun; a Pouch with Shot and Powder; a Tomohawk, or Diminutive of a Hatchet, by their side; a scalping Knife, Pistol &c."22 Mary and Johnny Musgrove were important figures in the history of Georgia for it was their good will, along with Oglethorpe's kindness, that convinced Tomochichi and the other Indians to have friendly relations with the Georgia settlers. Johnny Musgrove was of British descent while Mary was the daughter of a White trader and of the sister of old Brim or Bream who was a Creek Chief. She had become a Christian as a child and had been educated in Ponpon, South Carolina. In 1715, she married Johnny Musgrove.23 When Oglethorpe first saw her, she appeared, to him, to be of mean and low circumstance even though she turned out to be "a woman of means". She was clothed in a red Stroud petticoat and Osnabrig [a linen material] shift. Although this costume was not representative of a "lady of quality," it was decent and modest.24 The Prices of trade goods, during this time period, - English manufactured items for bucks-skins or for doe-skins which were worth half the value of buck-skins - were as follows:
Jean-Bernard Bossu26, a Captain of the French marines, traveled through the southeast in the seventeen fifties. In May of 1759, he was with the Alibamons when the Emperor of the "Kawytas" [Coweta] visited them. "The emperor marched gravely at the head of his attendants; I could hardly keep from laughing, on seeing tall well made naked men, painted with all kinds of colours, following each other in a file, according to their rank, like many Capuchin friars."27 "He wore on his head a crest of black plumes; [in the French edition, volume 2, p. 65, it stated `panache de plumes rouge' or red.] his coat was scarlet with English cuffs on it, beset with tinsel lace; he had neither waistcoat nor breeches, but only an apron [brayer] made of a bit of scarlet [rouge - red] cloth, which was taken up between the thighs and fastened to his girdle. Under his coat he had a white linen shirt [garnie -trimmed]; his feet were covered with a kind of buskins, of tanned roe-deer skins, which were dyed yellow."28 During his stay, the Governor of the Fort asked Bossu to give to the Emperor another suit of clothes so that it could be said that the French had also given him desired apparel. This suit consisted of a: "blue coat, and a gold laced waistcoat [waistcoat trimmed with gold lace], a hat with plumes, and a shirt with laced ruffles [ruffles made of lace]."29 Bernard Romans, also commented on the fondness for dress amongst the males. He stated that his guide "employed above two hours at his toilet".30 The dress of the women was not as spectacular as that of the men. However, when they dressed up for a ceremony, "their dress [was] scarcely to be paralleled by our European ladies."31 One article of dress was a musical instrument. Romans wrote: "I observed that women dressed their legs in a kind of leather stockings, hung full of the hoofs of the roe deer in form of bells, in so much as to make a sound exactly like that of castenettes. I counted in one of her stockings 493 of these claws...."32 It is important in all descriptions of dress, to know when the particular description was made. This applies to translations, reports of eye witness accounts, etc. In 1855 George Gilmer's book about the settlers and inhabitants of upper Georgia was published. He described Lackland McGilvray's first sighting of a group of Creek Indians. While he described an event that transpired in the first half of the eighteenth century, he did not write about it until the nineteenth century. In his description of the Creek men, he wrote that they wore, in addition to their belts, leggins (or leggings), moccasins, and wrappers.33 In the eighteen forties, the wrapper referred to a man's loose overcoat; while "in the 1850's it was defined as a loose thigh-length overcoat cut to wrap over the front, sometimes buttoned but more often held in place by the hand. The collar was a deep shawl type."34 Since Gilmer did not footnote the source of McGilvray's observation, it is impossible to know whether Gilmer was describing how the Creek men were actually dressed or whether he was describing how he thought they would have been dressed from his own observations since the wrapper was depicted as a part of male Indian dress by nineteenth century artists. William Bartram, in his book which delineated his travels throughout the southeast prior to and during the American Revolutiony War, usually was quite specific as to which tribe he was discussing. Bartram in part four of his book, described the manners, customs, etc., of the Muscogulges, Cherokees, Choctaws, etc. However, in Part four, Chapter three where he addressed himself to "Their Dress, Feasts and Divertisements,"35 he was not clear as to which Indians he was describing. Through an analysis of the syntax, the material, and the content immediately preceding and following the chapter, it becomes exceedingly probable that he was describing the Creek Indians. "The youth of both sexes are fond of decorating themselves with external ornaments. The men shave their head, leaving only a narrow crest or comb, beginning at the crown of the head, where it is about two inches broad and about the same height, and stands frized upright; but this crest tending backwards, gradually widens, covering the hinder part of the head and back of the neck: the lank hair behind is ornamented with silver quills, and then jointed or articulated silver plates; and usually the middle fascicle of hair, being the longest, is wrapped in a large quill of silver, or the joint of a small reed, curiously sculptured and painted, the hair continuing through it terminates in a tail or tassel. "Their ears are lascerated, separating the border or cartilaginous limb, which at first is bound round very close and tight with leather strings or thongs, and anointed with fresh bear's oil, until healed: apiece of lead being fastened to it, by its weight extends this cartilage to an incredible length, which afterwards being craped, or bound round in brass or silver wire, extends semicircularly like a bow or crescent; and it is then very elastic, even so as to spring and bound about with the least motion or flexure of the body: this is decorated with soft white plumes of heron feathers. "A very curious diadem or band, about four inches broad, and ingeniously wrought or woven, and curiously decorated with stones, beads, wampum, porcupine quills, &c., encircles their temples; the front peak of it being embellished with a high waving plume, of crane or heron feathers. "The clothing of their body is very simple and frugal. Sometimes a ruffled shirt of fine linen, next to the skin, and a flap which covers their lower parts; this garment somewhat resembles the ancient Roman breeches, or the kilt of the Highlanders; it usually consists of a piece of blue cloth, about eighteen inches wide; this they pass between their thighs, and both ends being taken up and drawn through a belt round their waist, the ends fall down, one before, and the other behind, not quite to the knee; this flap is usually plaited and indented at the ends, and ornamented with beads, tinsel lace, &c. "The leg is furnished with cloth boots [leggings]; they reach from the ancle to the calf, and are ornamented with lace, beads, silver bells, &c. "The stillepica or moccasin defends and adorns the feet; it seems to be an imitation of the ancient buskin or sandal, very ingeniously made of deer skins, dressed very soft, and curiously ornamented according to fancy. "Besides this attire, they have a large mantle of the finest cloth they are able to purchase, always either of scarlet or blue colour; this mantle is fancifully decorated with rich lace or fringes round the border, and often with little round silver, or brass bells. Some have a short cloak, just large enough to cover the shoulders and breast; this is most ingeniously constructed, of feathers woven or placed in a natural imbricated manner, usually of the scarlet feathers of the flamingo, or others of the gayest colour. "They have large silver crescents, or gorgets, which being suspended by a ribband round the neck, lie upon the breast; and the arms are ornamented with silver bands, or bracelets, and silver and gold chains, &c. a collar invests the neck. "The head, neck, and breast, are painted with vermilion, and some of the warriors have the skin of the breast, and muscular parts of the body, very curiously inscribed, or adorned with hieroglyphic scrolls, flowers, figures of animals, stars, crescents, and the sun in the middle of the breast."36 In 1789, William Bartram wrote a manuscript discussing the painting done by the Creek Indians on the walls of their homes, their bodies, etc. He described in detail the designs that were drawn through tattooing on the bodies of the old chiefs and micos. The hieroglyphs they used were often astronomical in character. "Commonly the sun, moon, and planets occupies the breast - zones or belts and fanciful scroles wind round the trunke, thighs, legs, and arms dividing the body into many fields or tablets, which are ornamented or filled with inumerable figures such as representations of animals of the chase, or a sketch of a landscape, representations of an engagement or battle with their enemy, or some creature of the chase and a thousand other fancies."37 John Pope circa 1790 described a ball play match near McGillivray's abode among the Upper Creeks in which he described how the players decorated themselves before the match. "The players devest themselves of all their Cloathes, except their flaps. They ingeniously disguise themselves with various coloured paints and assume the Semblance of Rattlesnakes entwin'd about their Legs Thighs and Arms; whilst spiral Streaks of red, white, black, and blue, alternately adorn their other Parts."38 "This painting of the flesh, I understand is performed in their youth, by pricking the skin with a needle, until the blood starts, and rubbing in a bluish tinct, which is as permanent as their life. The shirt hangs loose about the waist, like a frock, or split down before, resembling a gown, and is sometimes wrapped close, and the waist encircled by a curious sash. "The dress of the females is somewhat different from that of the men: their flap or petticoat is made after a different manner, is larger and longer, reaching almost to the middle of the leg, and is put on differently; they have no shirt or shift, but a little short waistcoat, usually made of calico, printed linen, or fine cloth decorated with lace, beads, &c."39 Although rarely referred to, the waistcoat was worn by women as well as by men in the eighteenth century. Those for men and women were cut relatively similar. They can be equated to late twentieth century vests. They were sleeveless, of course, with a v-style neck and buttons down the front. They were fitted to the waist and could flair out over the hips. Some did not and just ended in a point a little below the waist.40 Nancy Bradford in Costume in Detail, also referred to the waistcoat as a bodice.41 The waistcoats could be plain or very elaborately decorated. Some of the embroidered waistcoats of Provincial Governor James Bowdoin had ruffles all along the inner edge, braiding, lace etc.42 The waistcoat seemed to be a transitory garment adapted by some female Indians before they started to wear frontier type colonial attire consisting of a bodice with sleeves with or without the addition of a chemise and an ankle length skirt. A chemise was a knee length undergarment that had short sleeves and was often worn so that the part above the breast was visible from under the top of the bodice. The following is a continuation of Bartram's description of female attire: "They never wear boots or stockings, but their buskins reach to the middle of the leg. They never cut their hair, but plait it in wreaths, which are turned up, and fastened on the crown, with a silver broach, forming a wreathed top-knot, decorated with an incredible quantity of silk ribbands, of various colours, which stream down on every side, almost to the ground. They never paint, except of a particular class, when disposed to grant certain favours to the other sex."43 "But these decorations are only to be considered as indulgences on particular occasions, and the privilege of youth; as at weddings, festivals, dances, &c. or when the men assemble to act the war farce, on the evenings immediately preceding their march on a hostile expedition: for usually they are almost naked, contenting themselves with the flap and sometimes a shirt, boots and moccasins. The mantle is seldom worn by the men, except at night, in the winter season, when extremely cold; and by the women at dances when it serves the purpose of a veil; and the females always wear the jacket, flap, and buskin, even children as soon or before they can walk; whereas the male youth go perfectly naked until they are twelve or fifteen years of age."44 This latter reference to the dress of the females is very significant in the evolution of their particular dress. Although Bartram described their covering their upper bodies as an absolute, it probably varied with social and economic position, amount of interaction with White men, etc. Further, Bartram's reference to the covering of female infants is questionable. As has been stated in reference to the eighteenth century and even earlier, much of Indian attire was acquired from the White man. As Mortar - one of the important Creek Chiefs - stated in his address before the Congress during the British-Creek treaty negotiations of 1765: "....in former times we were unacquainted with the Customs of the White People, but since they have come amongst us, we have been Cloathed as they are, and accustomed to their Ways."45 In addition, intermarriage between Indians and Whites became more common. The following is an excerpt from a diary of 1776: "The Creeks of both sexes are remarkably well formed, the women tall well limbed, but seem in a state of degenerating having a number in each Town of half breed, red & white, which may pass for the latter. They are fond of imitating the white peoples dress, as well as they can, the old People wore great Coats & others wore surtoots and don't paint but have black lines formed with gun powder on their Faces, & those that wore shirts affect poppery by paint and other ornaments, some wore Hats & one half breed had Shoes & Stockings. The men have but little hair on their heads except around the crown which they cut in form of a Toopee & ornament with paint &c. & pluck their beards, so the European notion of the Indians being hairy is false, the Indians says the European is so, & very justly. The women wore linnen Jacketts with a Petticoat to their knees, they dont paint except round the edges of their hair next to the face, their hair is remarkably stiff & long like horse hair, which they wore in a large club without any other covering on their head."46 The jackets mentioned in the above quote were probably similar to the shortgown described earlier. If this garment had been sleeveless, Bartram probably would have called it a waistcoat. The Priests, on the other hand, did not assume the dress of the White man. "The junior priests or students constantly wear the mantle or robe, which is white; and they have a great owl skin cased and stuffed very ingeniously, so well executed, as to represent the living bird, having large sparkling glass beads, or buttons, fixed in the head for the eyes: this ensign of wisdom and divination, they wear sometimes as a crest on top of the head, at other times the image sits on the arm, or is born in the hand."47 The dress of these junior priests is not very different from that worn by many of the tribes in prior centuries. Bartram, also stated that the Muscogulge Mico or King's every day dress was no different than that of the other men of his nation.48 This information seemed to occur fairly often in narratives. The years surrounding the American Revolution were extremely hard on the Creek nation. Initially they tried to remain neutral believing that to be in their best interest. According to Homer Blast in his article, "Creek Indian Affairs 1775-1778", he listed three factors that led the Creeks to adopt that policy. Firstly, the Creek Indians knew that the American could not meet their need in respect to trade goods whereas the British could; secondly, the Creek-Choctaw war had been going on for ten years; thirdly, the colonists had been encroaching on Indian lands mercilessly and the Creeks believed that the British wanted to Protect their lands from encroachment. However, each town was an entity unto itself and could decide on its own policy.49 The Creeks's desire for neutrality was not realistic, and eventually they capitulated and joined the British against the colonists as the Cherokees had done.50 After the Revolutionary War and the Peace of Paris in 1783, the Creeks were caught up in another problem involving Europeans and Colonists. Both the New American government and the government of Spain were involved in a dispute that encompassed the Creeks' territory.51 In addition, with the end of the war, the Creeks were faced with the same problem as were the Cherokees in reference to trade. Alexander McGillivray, a half-breed Creek and an important personage both with the Creeks and with Spain, wanted to trade with Spain and to have Panton, Leslie, and Company as agents. Although McGillivray was not initially successful with the latter, eventually he succeeded in both areas.52 Spain supplied McGillivray with munitions to harass the frontiers of the colony of Georgia.53 However by 1787, Spain wanted the Creeks to stop the harassment.54 On August 7, 1790, a treaty between the United States and the Creek Nation through the personage of McGillivray was concluded.55 Many parties disputed the treaty in the Creek nation, among them were the Lower Creeks and William Augustus Bowles who claimed that he was the Creek spokesman.56 Also, the state of Georgia was at odds with the United States over aspects of the treaty, especially those that dealt with Creek land that was wanted by the Georgians. The treaty never was put into effect because of the intense opposition to it.57 In 1799 when the Missionary Abraham Steiner was traveling through the southeast, he saw some Creek Indians who had driven cattle to the Tellico garrison in the land of the Cherokees. "They were mostly young, with silver rings in their noses and long slits in their ears. They wore short striped shirts, a strip of blue cloth about the loins, long, leathern stockings laced at the side and Indian half-boots. Instead of a coat they throw a blanket about themselves. One of them had his left eye painted red and the right cheek black and pleased himself not a little with this decoration."58 From Steiner's description of the Indian's painted face, it is obvious that it was for decoration and not to transmit any message since red and black can signify war, etc. and the Indians had come to trade. 20. "A Curious Account of the Indians by an Honorable Person", Collection of the Georgia Historical Society, p. 62. 21. The London Magazine or Gentleman's Monthly Intelligencer, Volume MDCCXXXlV, August, 1734, p. 447. 22. Kimber, A Relation or Journal of A Late Expedition to the Gates of Saint Augustine in Florida, p. 16. 23. Coulter, The Georgia Historical Quarterly, Vol. Xl, #1, "Mary Musgrove, `Queen of the Creeks"'. pp. 2-3. 24. Coulter, The Georgia Historical Quarterly, Vol. Xl, #1, "Mary Musgrove, `Queen of the Creeks,"' pp. 2-4. 26. When the English translation is inaccurate, the corresponding account in the French will be given and cited accordingly. 27. Bossu, Travels Through that Part of America formerly called Louisiana by Mr. Bossu. Translated from the French by Reinhold Forster, p. 271. 30. Bernard Romans, A Concise Natural History of East & West Florida, p. 96. Pages cited from original 1775 Edition. 33. George Gilmer, Sketches of Some of the First Settlers of Upper Georgia, of the Cherokees, and of the Author, pp. 324-325. 37. Bartram from Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, "Creek and Cherokee Indians", Volume lll-part 1, 1853, p. 19. 38. Jon Pope, Tour Through the Southern and Western territories of the United States of North America;....., p. 50. 45. Peter Brannon, The Florida Historical Quarterly "The Pensacola Indian Trade", Volume 31, July, 1952, Number 1, pp. 11 and 12. 46. Miscellaneous Mss Hall. Courtesy of the New York Historical Society. "Account of the Creek Indians,"Part of a Diary of Mr. Hall, Indian Agent, from January 1, 1776 - January 5, 1777. pp. 90 & 91. The same account can be found in an unpublished manuscript of Dr. Hall who sent a Mr. Pennant a description of his trip to the Creek Nation in 1794. This account includes information about his reason for being in St. Augustine in 1775. From a perusal of this document, it can be judged that he was not an Indian Agent. Hall-Pennant Document. Thomas Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, OK. 49. Homer Blast, "Creek Indian Affairs 1775-1778." Georgia Historical Quarterly, Volume 33, pp.1-25. |