Part 4 - Chapter 2 

The Virginia-Carolina and Georgia section of the Southeast with emphasis on the Piedmont area.  

By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the cultural gap between the Indians and English colonists had not decreased.

One of the first chroniclers of the eighteenth century was John Lawson, an English gentleman, who spent eight years from 1700-1708 with the Indians of the Carolinas. He spent these years travelling in the Carolina Piedmont area. He commenced his journey at Charleston, South Carolina and continued travelling through South Carolina and into North Carolina1 visiting such tribes as the Saponi, Santee, Congaree, Waxhaw, Catawba, etc. These names, however, did not always identify the same group of Indians. As Merrell stated in The Indians' New World,

"The continuing confusion over names hinted at a deeper ignorance of the lands and people beyond the colonial settlements along the coast.2"

John Lawson described the dress of specific tribes of Indians in both South and North Carolina as well as the generalized dress of all the Indians in North Carolina.

In his narrative, he made a statement that could be misleading if not interpreted within the context of his work and within the context of other seventeenth and eighteenth century writings.

"The Dresses of these People are so different, according to the Nation that they belong to, that it is impossible to recount all the whimsical Figures that they sometimes make by their Antick [grotesque, absurd, bizarre] Dresses. Besides, Carolina is a warm Country, and very mild in its Winters to what Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, the Jersies, and New England are; in regard their [the Indians' dress in these other colonies] chief Cloathing for the Winter-Seasons is made of the Furs of Bever, Roccoon and other Northern Furs, that our Climate is not acquainted withal, they producing some Furs as the Monack, Moor, Marten, Black Fox, and others to us unknown."3

This statement is best understood in reference to Indians who lived in different climates than that of the Carolinas and not to groups of Indians living within the same geographical region although the reference to Virginia is questionable. It has already been established that bodily adornment through the use of paint, tattoos, hair styles, and jewelry did vary both tribally and individually.

Brickell, who will be discussed later in this chapter, in his book published in 1737 about his stay in North Carolina, modified Lawson's statement by inserting the statement that:

"our Indian Habits differ very much from the dresses that are used by the Savages that inhabit those cold Climates."4

He, also, did not refer to the colony of Virginia as he, obviously, felt it did not represent a cold climate.

Lawson, in the 1709 edition, (many printings were done of his book), devoted four pages to the general dress of the Indians of the North Carolina area. These pages will be transcribed in their entirety throughout this chapter as well as the text from another Englishman who visited the Carolina Indians twenty years later because he used Lawson's work as a basis for his own.

Marc Catesby read Lawson's 1714 edition of A New Voyage to North Carolina and in the initial part of his book, The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and The Bahamas, he wrote:

"As I had the same opportunities of attesting that Author's [Lawson's] account as he had in writing it, I shall take the liberty to select from him what is most material, which otherwise I could not have omitted from my observations."5

Lawson wrote:

"The Women's Dress is, in severe Weather, a hairy Match-coat in the Nature of a Plad, which keeps out the Cold, and, (as I said before,) defends their Children from the Prejudices of the Weather.6 At other times they have only a sort of Flap or Apron containing two Yards in Length, and better than a Half yard deep. Sometimes it is a Deer-Skin dressed white, and pointed or slit at the bottom, like a Fringe. When this is clean, it becomes them very well. Others wear blue or red Flaps made of Bays [Bayes or Baize]7 and Plains8, of which they buy of the English, of both which they tuck in the Corners, to fasten the Garment, and sometimes make it fast with a Belt. All of them when ripe, [when they are no longer considered children usually around the age of eight or ten] have a small String round the Waist, to which another is tied and comes between their Legs, where always is a Wad of Moss against the Ospubis, but never any Hair is there to be found. Sometimes they wear Indian Shooes or Moggizons, which are made of the same manner as the Men's are."9

Catesby added to Lawson's description of the women's dress by writing:

"The women wear short petticoats of woolen, and some of moss. In summer they generally go naked from the waste upwards, but in winter they wrap themselves in a mantle of skins or woolen cloth, which they purchase from the English."10

Lawson observed that:

"The hair of their heads is made into a long Roll like a Horses Tail, and is bound round with Ronoak, or Porcelan, which is a sort of beads they make of the Conk-Shells. Others that have not this make a Leather-String serve."11

Catesby, also, added additional information pertinent to their hair styles.

"Their hair they manage in a different manner from the men, sometimes rolling it up in a bunch to the crown of their head, others braid it, and bind it with wreaths peak and ronoak."12

Indian society, in this area, contained a division of girls known as "Trade Girls" or prostitutes. The chief of the tribe acted as their procurer. They were differentiated from the other women by the style of their hair.13

"The Indian Men [according to Lawson] have a Match-Coat of Hair, Furs, Feathers, or Cloth, as the Women have. Their Hair is rolled up on each Ear, as the Women's, only much shorter, and often times a Roll on the Crown of the head or temples, which is just as fancy, there being no strictness in their Dress. Betwixt their legs comes a Piece of Cloth, that is tucked in by a Belt, both before and behind. This is to hide their Nakedness, of which Decency they are very strict Observers, although never practiced before the Christians came amongst them. They wear Shooes of Buck's and sometimes Bear's Skin, which they tan in an Hour or two, with the Bark of Trees boiled, wherein they put the Leather whilst hot, and let it remain a little while, whereby it becomes so qualified as to endure Water and Dirt, without growing hard. These have no Heels, and are made as Fit for the Feet as a Glove is for the Hand, and are very easy to travel in when one is a little used to them.

"Their feather Match-Coats are very pretty, especially some of them, which are made extraordinary charming, containing several pretty figures wrought in Feathers, making them seem like a fine Flower Silk-Shag; and when new and fresh, they become a Bed very well, instead of a Quilt. Some of another sort are made of Hare, Raccoon, Bever, or Squirrel-Skins, which are very warm. Other are made of the green Part of the Skin of a Mallard'd Head, which they sew perfectly well together, their Thread being either the Sinews of a Deer divided very small, or Silk-grass. When these are finished, they look very finely, though they must needs be very troublesome to make. Some of their great Men, as Rulers and such, that have Plenty of Deer-Skins by them, will often buy English-made Coats, which they wear on Festivals and other Days of Visiting. Yet none ever buy any Breeches, saying that they are too much confined in them, which prevents their Speed in running, &c.

"We have some Indians that are more civilized than the rest, which wear Hats, Shooes, Stockings, and breeches, with very tolerable Linnen Shirts, which is not common amongst these heathens."14

The above statement is very important for too often, people assume that all Indians, even of the same tribe, dressed exactly alike as if in uniform.

Catesby's description of the male Indians' dress will be quoted in its entirety.

"In summer they go naked, except a piece of cloth between their legs, that is tack'd into a belt, and hangs in a flap before and behind. Their ordinary Winter dress is a loose open waistcoat without sleeves, which is usually made of a Deer skin, wearing the hairy side insides or outwards in proportion to the cold or warmth of the season; in the coldest weather they cloth themselves with the skin of Bears, Beavers, Rackoons, &c. besides warm and very pretty garments made of feathers. They wear leather buskins15 on their legs, which they tie below the knee. Their Mockasins or shoes are made of bear or buck skins, without heels, and are made as fit the feet as a glove to the hand."16

The waistcoat mentioned above could either be similar to an outer garment that was described by Hugh Jones of Virginia around 1717 which had holes for the shoulder and no sleeves or could be identical to a match-coat. The fact that Catesby labeled it a waistcoat and did not use Lawson's label of a match-coat, lends itself to the fact that it possibly was a slightly different garment than a traditional match-coat.

Lawson stated that he never saw a bald Indian. He attributed this to the fact that they nourish their hair with constant applications of bear's fat. They, also, mixed the bear's fat with a red powder from a root.17

The Indians used different roots to dye their items red. Their favorite was the Scarlet Root. When they could not obtain it they substituted the Pucoon Root. However, this dyed their hair an ugly hue of red. They also used an herb called Wasebur, a root called Chappacor, and the bark of the Tangomockonominge tree. They used these dyes to paint their faces and for coloring baskets and mats.18

Very few examples have been reported of Indians with beards or mustaches. Lawson reported that the male Keyauwees19 wore "mustachoes or whiskers".20

The Indian males, as did the trade girls, used hair styles as marks of differentiation.

Catesby described Indians' hair styles without attributing gender to his narrative. However, from the positioning of the description within his narrative and with the fact that he described women's hair styles specifically, it can be ascertained that the following description pertained to Indian men.

"Indians wear no covering on their heads, their hair being very long is twisted and rolled up in various manners, sometimes in a bunch on each ear sometimes on one ear only, the hair on the other side hanging at length, or cut off. Others having their hair growing on one side of their head at full length, while the hair of the other side is cut within an inch or two of the roots, standing upright." 21

These Indians in general, not just the bone pickers as was observed in other tribes, also, let their nails grow very long for they believed that was supposed to be their function.22

Lawson was very specific in stating that Indian men adorned themselves in a definite style when they went to war.

"Their dress in Peace and War is quite different. Besides, when they go to war, their Hair is combed out by the Women and done over very much with Bear's grease and red Root, with Feathers, Wings, Rings, Copper, and peak or Wampum in their Ears. Moreover, they buy Vermillion of the Indian Traders, wherewith they paint their Faces all over red, and commonly make a Circle of Black about one Eye and another Circle of White about the other, whilst others bedaub their faces with Tobacco-Pipe Clay, Lamp-black, black lead, and divers other Colours, which they make with the several Minerals and earths that they get in different Parts of the Country, where they hunt and travel. When these creatures are thus painted, they make the most frightening Figures that can be Imitated by Men, and seem more like Devils than Human Creatures. As for the Women, they never use any paint on their faces."23

The Indians also used tattooing to depict feats of bravery:

"Their war Captains and men of distinction have usually a portrait of a serpent, or other animal, on their naked bodies; this is done by puncture and a black powder conveyed under the skin, These figures are esteemed not only as ornamental, but serve to distinguish the warriors, making them more known and dreaded by their enemies."24

Their ornaments of bracelets, necklaces, and earrings were very similar to what the Indians wore who were depicted by White and Hariot.

"Some of the Indians wear great Bobs in their Ears, and sometimes in the Holes thereof they put Eagles and other Birds, Feathers, for a Trophy. When they kill any Fowl, they commonly pluck off the downy Feathers, and stick them all over their heads. Some (both Men and Women) wear great Necklaces of their Money made of Shells. They often wear Bracelets made of brass, and sometimes Iron Wire."25

"Some of the modish wear a large bunch of downy feathers thrust through a hole in one or sometimes both ears; others strow their heads usually with the down of Swans."26

"They often times make, of this Shell, a sort of Gorge, which they wear about their Neck in a string; so it hangs on their Collar, whereon sometimes is engraven a Cross, or some odd sort of Figure, which comes next in their Fancy. There are other sorts valued at a Doe-Skin, yet the Gorges will sometimes sell for three or four Buckskins ready dressed."27

"....the military men especially, wear at their breasts a concave shell, cut to the form of, tho' somewhat less than a gorget; this is a universal decoration with all the Indians of the northern continent; and as all their mechanism, for want of good tools, is performed with great labour, so these gorgets bear a great price in proportion to their largeness and carving."28

"It [a Peak bead] is ground smaller than the small End of a Tobacco-Pipe, or a large Wheat straw. Four or five of these make an Inch, and every one is to be drilled through, and made as smooth as Glass, and so strung as Beads are, and a Cubit of the Indian Measure contains as much in Length, as will reach from Elbow to the End of the little Finger."29

As the Indians adapted some European values such as "modesty" and "greed," a large schism appeared between rich and poor Indians in reference to material goods. Since the Europeans introduced the concept of excess income via the selling of furs, slaves, etc. they introduced among the Indians a special class of "have nots". The Europeans claimed that the reason this latter class was poor was because they were either, lazy, drunk, or prone to gambling.30

"Some of the heathens are so very poor that they have no Manner of Cloaths, save a Wad of Moss to hide their Nakedness."31

The Indians were no different than any other peoples on the earth in that they dressed differently as the occasion warranted.

Often when they hunted, they masqueraded using the head of a deer as a decoy. The following description applies to what was worn by a Santee Indian hunter. Hunters never dressed as deer when hunting in groups or in populous areas so that no one would be accidentally killed.

"They [the deer's heads] are made of the Head of a Buck, the back Part of the Horns being scrapt and hollow for Lightness of Carriage. The Skin is left to the setting on of the Shoulders, which is lined all around with Small Hoops, and flat Sort of Laths, to hold it open for the Arm to go in. They have a Way to preserve the Eyes, as if living. The Hunter puts on a Match-Coat made of deer's Skin, with the hair on, and a piece of the White Part of the Deer's Skin that grows on the Breast, which is fastened to the Neck-End of this stalking head, so it hangs down."32

The priests dressed according to the ceremonies being performed. Lawson noted that one performing an exorcism was clothed in a "clean white dressed Deer-Skin."33

When a man of important rank died, a proscribed mourning outfit was worn by the chief mourner,

"being clad in Moss and a stick in his Hand....his Face being black with Smoak of Pitch Pine mingled with Bear's Oil."34

Feasts, ceremonies, and dances were considered very special occasions. When the Sapona [Saponi] Indians wanted to invite the Waxsaws35 to a feast, they sent a messenger identified by his dress.

"He was painted with Vermillion all over his Face, having a very large Cutlass stuck in his Girdle, and a fusee in his hand."36

Lawson, also, to some degree, described the participants in a dance. He stated that the men were:

"dressed up with Feathers, their Faces being covered with Vizards made of Gourds; round their Ancles ad Knees were hung Bells of several sorts; having Wooden Falchions in their Hands, (such as Stage-Fencers commonly use)."37

The females in the dance wore :

"great Horse Bells about their Legs and small Hawk Bells about their necks."38

These Indians made woven cloths from Possum hair. They, also, made "Girdles, Sashes, Garters, &c., after the same manner".39

A plant called "Silk Grass" was, also, used by the Indians to make thread.

"The Indians use it in all their little Manufacture, twisting a Thread of it that is prodigiously strong. Of this they, make their Baskets and Aprons with which their Women wear about their Middles, for Decency's Sake. These are long enough to wrap quite round them and reach down to their Knees, with a Fringe on the underpart by way of an Ornament."40

The Indians used and sold to the Europeans both dressed and undressed skins.

"Their way of Dressing their Skins is, by soaking them in Water, so they get the Hair off with an Instrument made of the Bone of a Deer's Foot; yet some use a sort of Iron Drawing-Knife, which they purchase of the English, and after the Hair is off they dissolve Deer's Brains, (which beforehand are made in a Cake and baked in the Embers) in a Bowl of Water; then they dry it gently, and keep working it with Oyster-Shell, or some such thing, to scrape withal till it is dry; whereby it becomes soft and pliable. Yet these so dressed will not endure wet, but become hard thereby; which to prevent, they either cure them in Smoke or tan them with bark, as before observed; not but that young Indian Corn beaten to a Pulp, will effect the same as Brains."41

The adjacent territorial area of Virginia was visited in 1701 by Francis Louis Michel of Berne, Switzerland. Through written and graphic reports, he described four main tribes of Indians that dwelt inland on the Potomac, Rabahanac (Rappahannock), and Manigkinton (probably the Mattaponi) rivers and those living on the coast between Virginia and North Carolina. Swanton believed that the drawings represented the Monacan Indians of the Siouan linguistic family.42

"They have no clothes except what they get through trade with the English. They wear them when they have to go to the Christians, which happens once a year, at the annual muster of the troops, in order to show them the power (ed. note - of the English). Their loins and feet are then covered with a little piece of skin. They are well formed people, of ordinary size, but a little smaller than we. They have small fierce eyes set deep in their heads, black hair hanging down their shoulders, most of them, however, have it cut short, except the women, who wear long, black hair. When they are summoned, their king or queen, as also their princes and nobles (but with some difference) wear crowns of bark, a little more than a buckle wide, round and open above, with white and brown stripes, half an inch long, set in beautifully in spiral form, so that no bark is visible. The women, especially the queen, and her three servants, were overhung with such things, strung on big and small threads or something similar, in place of chains. I wondered what kind of material it was. I examined, therefore, the finery of one of the maids of the queen. I cannot compare it to anything better than to strips of leather, hung over the harness of horses in this country (ed. note - Switzerland.) They had perhaps three pounds of such material hanging around their neck and arms."43

Michel's description has to be taken from the perspective of a European traveler who had never seen Indians before and was not familiar with the natural materials that the Natives used for clothing and ornaments. It has, also, been shown that very little clothing to many Europeans was virtually synonymous with none. It is also possible that he exaggerated their appearance so as to make the Indians more incredible to his audience.

Dr. Hinkle, who translated and edited the manuscript, stated that the crown was the same type that Robert Beverley described. However, Beverley's crowns were according to Hinkle's note "from 4 to 6 inches broad" and composed of Peak or beads or both. Hinkle, also equates the "harness-like strips worn around the neck" as being of the same material as Peak, Runtees, or Pipes.44 However, it seems hard to imagine that Michel could not tell a strip of bark or leather from a bead, or even a woven strip of beads.

Throughout his narrative, Michel kept describing the Indians:

"There were also some who had a narrow spangle drawn through their nose. its meaning is unknown to me. Some had also a tuft of strange feathers under their ears, in some cases larger than in others. I think it indicates those who are the best hunters. They were ridiculously dressed. One had a shirt on with a crown on his head, another a coat and neither trousers, stockings nor shoes. Others had a skin or red cover around them. [Probably a match-coat or blanket of English fabric]. In their homes they are naked, as I have seen one at Manigkton, who came back from hunting. He had nothing but his rifle, knife, powder horn, except a linen rag which covered his sexual parts a little, and a deer skin (ed. Note moccasin) protecting his feet, that the thorns might not hurt him. He had also a tuft of feathers behind his ear."45

"The most wonderful thing is their dancing. The Governor [of Virginia] when he was sitting at the table in the evening, with the other gentlemen, had the young queen come in, who was wearing nice clothes of a French pattern. But they were not put on right. One thing was too large, another too small, hence it did not fit. She was covered all over with her ornaments, consisting of large and small pieces, of all kinds of colors. Her crown was like those of the others, but it was much more beautiful set with stones more artistically."46

There is no mention in the literature of that period of the Southeast Indians setting stones. It is possible that Michel spoke of stones when he meant Peak since Peak would have been unfamiliar to him. Or he was describing an ornament obtained from Euro/Americans.

The Europeans did not understand that the Indians were not trying to copy them in their dress but were utilizing the clothes and colors as it pleased them and intermingling these articles with their more indigenous jewelry.

South of the area visited by Michel lived the Nottaway Indians. William Byrd gave a short description of some in his diary which he kept while involved in plotting the North Carolina-Virginia boundary. He believed them to be the only ones of consequence left in Virginia in 1727.47 He described a dance that he witnessed.

"The young men had painted themselves in a hideous manner, not so much for ornamentation as for terror.

"Upon this occasion the ladies had arrayed themselves in all their finery. They were wrapped in their red and blue matchcoats, thrown so negligently about them that their mahogany skins appeared in several parts, like the Lacedaemonian damsels of old. Their hair was braided with white and blue peak and hung gracefully in a large roll upon their shoulders."48 

In September of 1714, John Fontaine set sail for Virginia. He described a delegation of Saponi Indians who had come to see the Governor. These Saponi were on friendly terms with the English and lived not far from the Fort.

"About three of the clock, came sixty of the young men with feathers in their hair and run through their ears, their faces painted with blue and vermillion, their hair cut in many forms, some on one side of the head, and some on both, and others on the upper part of the head, making it stand like a cock's comb, and they had blue and red blankets wrapped about them. They dress themselves after this manner when they go to war the one with the other, so they call it their war-dress, and it really is very terrible, and makes them look like so many furies.

"After this came the young women; they all have long straight black hair, which comes down to the waist; they had each of them a blanket tied round the waist, and hanging down the legs like a petticoat. They have no shifts, and most of them nothing to cover themselves from the waist upwards; others of them their were that had two deer-skins sewed together and thrown over their shoulders like a mantle. They all of them grease their bodies and heads with bear's oil, which with the smoke of their cabins, gives them an ugly smell."49

Fontaine also visited the Indians in their village. He described the cradle board that they used to bind and carry their children until the latter reached the age of two years.

"The Indian women bind their children to a board that is cut after the shape of the child: there are two pieces at the bottom of this board to tie the two legs of the child to, and a piece cut out behind, so that all that the child doth falls from him, and he is never dirty. The head or top of the board is round, and there is a hole through the top of it for a string to be passed through, so that when the women tire of holding them, or have a mind to work, they hang the board to the limb of a tree, or to a pin in a post for that purpose, and there the children swing about and divert themselves, out of the reach of anything that may hurt them."50

Some of the people in the eighteenth century believed that the Indians would have been easily Christianized and, then, would have accepted European dress if the English had intermarried early on in their association with the Indians.51

Many of the older Indians did not understand why the Europeans considered it to be so important for them to adopt European dress.

"For they thought it hard, that we should desire them to change their manners and customs, since they did not desire us to turn Indian.52"

In 1717 Hugh Jones arrived in Virginia as a Professor of Mathematics at The College of William and Mary. In his book The Present State of Virginia, which was published in 1724, he described the Indians of Virginia.

"They [the men] commonly wear a dear-skin, putting their arms through the holes of the shoulders, with a flap tyed before and behind to cover their nakedness; though they often buy match-coats or blankets now, to defend them from the wet and cold, and think themselves very fine in such coats as our common soldiers wear, or of any taudry colours: besides this, some pin pieces of red or blue cloth about their legs, and make moccasons or leather purses for their feet."53

"They often wear shells hanging upon their breasts with feathers or deer's tails in their bored ears or hair, with a wolf or fox skin for a snapsack (knapsack - ed. Morton).

"In their opinion they are finest when dressed most ridiculously or terribly. Thus, some have their all over curiously wrought with blewish lines and figures, as if done with gun-powder and needles, and all of them delight in being painted; so that when they are very fine, you may see some with their hair cut off on one side, and a long lock on the other. The crown being crested and bedaubed with red lead and oil; their forehead being painted white, and it may be their nose black, and a circle of blue round one eye, with the cheek reds, and all the other side of the face yellow, or in some fantastical manner. These colours they buy of us, being persuaded to despise their own, which are common and finer."54

This last sentence shows another instance of how the Euro/Americans were influencing the Indians to want non-Indian goods.

It is extremely hard and probably impossible to know definitely whether some of the chroniclers of the Indians, especially in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, reported from actual first hand eye witness accounts or utilized accounts of other contemporary writers and applied them to the particular group of Indians under discussion. Only where there are many instances of misrepresentation, can this be proven. Even then, it is sometimes almost impossible to know which of the information needs to be questioned. Some of the descriptions of dress given by Jones meet this latter criteria.

The Indians that Jones encountered and described seem to have an unwarranted number of characteristics to those of the sixteenth and early seventeenth century. It is possible that he was using White's and Hariot's descriptions (as did Beverley) and not actual eye witness accounts. The plausibility of this statement is based on the fact that it has been recorded numerous times by early eighteenth as well as late seventeenth century observers that most of the Indians that lived near highly populated areas dressed in a mixture of European garb and native dress from earlier time periods. Jones was living in an area of Virginia which was no longer the frontier and in which dwelt many fashionable English men and women.

How much of the material presented by Catesby and Jones reflect their own original observations or rely on each others and Lawson's will unfortunately never be known. The items that seems questionable are the "waistcoat type" garment described by Catesby and the deer-skin garment with arm holes presented by Jones. If these presentations were independent, then a clear evolution of the matchcoat, blanket, or robe, is in evidence. However, if one just mimicked the other, then the validity of the original observation will never be known for certain until more observations of a similar garment are recorded. The chronology of arrivals and publications of Lawson, Catesby, and Jones are as follows: Lawson visited North Carolina from 1700 to 1708. His book was published in 1709, 1714, 1718, etc. Marc Catesby visited North Carolina in 1722. Volume one of his work was printed in 1731 and volume two in 1743. Hugh Jones first went to Virginia in 1717 and his work was published in 1724.

Thirty years after Lawson had visited North Carolina, another Englishmen did the same. John Brickell was an English educated physician.

In 1730 he was selected as a member of a party whose mission was to promote friendly relations with the Cherokees. From his journey, and his general residence in North Carolina he wrote, The Natural History of North Carolina.

Brickell's book has been much criticized because many of the passages are direct quotes from Lawson's work. However, as J. Bryan Grimes points out in his notes on the book, Brickell's book was meant to be a compendium of information about North Carolina using Lawson's book as a guide. While he did use Lawson without giving him credit, at least in the area of dress he added to, modified, and clarified where Lawson might appear confusing, and brought up to date (1730) Lawson's descriptions of dress and adornment of the North Carolina Indians. He, like Lawson, described them as a group. Since Brickell's descriptions do vary from Lawson's and, more importantly, describe the change of a culture thirty years after Lawson, many of his descriptions will be reproduced in their entirety.

"The Women's dress in severe and cold Weather are Peticoats, Blankets, or Tail-clouts (which of late they have purchased from the Europeans) or a Hairy Matchcoat made in the nature of a Plad of the Skins of several wild Beasts, which keeps out the Cold, and (as I said before) defends their Children from the prejudices of the Weather, at other times they have only a kind of flap or Apron containing two Yards in length, and better than half a Yard deep to cover their Privities, which is done only for decency, both Men and Women being accustomed from their infancy to an entire Nakedness, for they go with their Feet, Body, and head bear, all seasons of the Year. Others wear Blue or red Flaps made of Bays and Plains, which they buy from the Europeans, both which they tuck in at the Corners, to fasten that kind of Garment' and at other times they make it fast with a Belt: Sometimes they wear Meggizons or Indian shoes made of Deer-Skins, after the manner of the Men's. Some of them likewise have in Winter Blue or Red Stuff fastened about their Legs instead of Stockins."55

While the above passage is similar to Lawson's, there are additions that are significant. The last statement that refers to the women wearing a form of leggings in winter is one of the first examples of this kind.

Brickell described the women's hair styles, initially, in the same manner as did Lawson; however, he added much information to the description. This additional information, quite possibly, reflected a new adaptation of European materials as hair ornaments.

"The Hair of their head is made into a long Roll like a Horses-tail, and adorned or bound with Ronoak or Porcelan..... Others that have not this, make a Leather string or some pieces of Green or Red Stuff serve, others adorne their Hair with Beautiful Flowers and Feathers of several Birds: After this manner they make their appearance, when they come along with their Husbands amongst the Christians."56

Brickell, claimed that the men, also had tied in their hair "several bits of Stuff of various colours, such as Yellow, Green, and Red."57 Also, "when they kill any Fowl, they commonly pluck of the downy Feathers and stick them all over their Heads."58

The men's dress described by Brickell was so similar to that described by Lawson, that it does not warrant repetition except for his informative passage about men's leggings. Obviously the wearing of leggings was becoming more prevalent as the eighteenth century progressed.

"They make their Stockins of pieces of Blue or Red Cloath, which they fasten about their legs with small Splinters made of bits, of the Pitch pine-wood, or any other Wood. Others fasten them on the outside of their Leg like Buskins."59

Few of the Indian men, in Brickell's time wore breeches. He stated that

"those that have plenty of Deer skins frequently buy the English made Coats, Blankets, &c. yet few are ever known to Buy or wear Breeches (except their Kings and great men) saying they are too much confined in them, and prevents their speed in running, leaping, and other exercises."60

This above statement is very important for it shows that the depictions of the Indians of Brickell's time frame wearing breeches is accurate only when representing "important tribal men," but cannot be generalized to apply to all or even many Indian men.

Brickell, as did Lawson stated that the women

"......seldom or never use any paint on their Faces, except Bear's-Grease or Lamp-black, when they Mourn for their dead."61

The men, however, used painting not only to appear fearful to their enemies but as a method of representing

".....most of the Actions in Life, such as War, Peace, Feasts, Death, and the like, using different Colours or paintings suitable to each occasion."62

By the time Brickell visited North Carolina, the Indians had stopped hunting disguised as deer because too many of the former had been killed by mistake.63

Brickell's observation on headgear is interesting for he did not depict the North Carolina Indians wearing any type of headgear except for their

".........civilized [defined by him as Christian] Kings and War Captains, who of late wear Hats, especially when they visit the Christians."64

These hats could have been the forerunners of the turban like head coverage seen in eighteenth century paintings.

Brickell echoed Lawson in his statement that they never pare their nails.65

Brickell stated that in his experience the majority of the Indians of North Carolina lived near the mountains and not near the planters. Of the former, he stated that there were three heads of clans, referred to by the English as kings. He described their dress when they appeared before English notables. In the instance under discussion, they and their wives and children paid a visit to the Governor. The kings were known as King Blunt, King Durant, and King Highter.66

"King Blunt being the most powerful of these I have mentioned, had a Suit of English Broadcloth, and a pair of Women's stockings, of a blue Colour, with white Clocks, a tolerable good Shirt, Cravat, Shoes, Hat, &c."67

Brickell does not mention whether King Blunt wore breeches or a clout.

This is not the only mention of a male Indian wearing women's stockings. While both men's and women's stockings could be equally ornate and of various colors or utilitarian as the occasion warranted and did not seem to vary even though men's stockings were to be seen and women's were mostly hidden, their lengths varied. Men's stockings usually reached to a little above the bottom of their breeches and were worn underneath or they were worn over the bottom of the breeches and called "roll-ups". Women's stockings, also reached to about the knee. The only probable difference between men's and women's stockings was in the size of the foot.

"King Durant had on an old Blue Livery, the Wastecoat having some remains of Silver Lace, with all other Necessaries fit for wearing Apparel such as Shirt, Stockings, Shoes, &c. made after the English manner."68

"King Highter had on a Soldiers red Coat, Wastecoat, and, Breeches, with all other conveniences for wearing Apparel, like the former: And it is to be observed, that after their return home to their Towns, that they never wear these Cloaths till they make the next State Visit amongst the Christians."69 70

These statements shows clearly that the Indians segmented their dress to what was appropriate when dealing with the Christians and what was appropriate when in their home towns.

However, the issue of modesty did not seem to be the pivotal reason for the difference in dress when "at home or abroad" for the Indian "Queens" who visited the Governor were dressed utilizing some English garments and English Stuff [fabrics] in their hair but in the traditional Indian style which was devoid of upper body coverings.

"The first of these Queens was drest with a Peticoat made after the European manner, and had her Hair, which is generally long, thick, and Black, tyed full of bits of Stuff, such as Red, Green, Yellow, and a variety of other Colours, so that to an European she rather seemed like a Woman out of Bedlam, [an institution for the insane] than a Queen. She likewise had a large Belt about her full of their Peack, or wampum, which is their Money, and what they value above Gold or Silver, but to me it seem'd no better than our common Snails, or other ordinary shells; the other parts of the Body from the Waste upwards were all naked. The other two Queens were drest much after the same manner, but none like the first, having no such rich Belts of Money about their Bodies, ....."71

Lawson, Brickell, and others observed that the Indians dressed in many different ways according to their own tastes. Brickell enumerated further on this statement:

"You shall not see two but what have some Mark to distinguish them from each other; sometimes very long black Hair, with several bits of Stuff, such as Green, Blue, Red, White, and Yellow, tied in it; others with their Hair cut close, only a Circle left on the Head, the Hair whereof is about half an Inch longer than the rest. Others with several Marks in different parts of their Bodies and Faces, as if they had been marked with Gun-Powder, so that if you see an hundred of them, you shall always observe some differences in each of them, either in their Painting, Tonsure of their Hair, or the marks made in their Skins."72

The ability of the Indians to trade skins for goods obviously opened a new avenue in regards to their material culture. It, also, as has been stated before, caused a new type of stratification of Indian society. In the records of the South Carolina Commissioners of trade are many entries delineating the rates of exchange for natural, lightly dressed, and heavily dressed skins. These rates were not always consistent and could vary tribally depending on which tribe and persons within the tribe negotiated the agreements. The following is an example of a contract negotiated on June 3, 1718 between the Creek Indians and members of the Commission of Indian Trade:73   

Goods Traded for Dressed Skins 

Heavy Skins OR

Light Skins

Strouds, per Yard

6

9

Blew or red Duffields, per Yard

6

9

Stript Duffield Blankets, per Yard

6

9

Half Thicks, Plains and Cottons, per Yard

2

3

Half Thicks, Coats, laced

14

21

Plain Ditto

12

18

Hats, plain

----------------

--------------

Shirts

----------------

---------------

Etc.

 

 

Another example included ready made garments. This entry was from April 25, 1718 and referred to heavily dressed skins only.74  

Trade in Heavily Dressed Skins from 4-25-1718

No. Skins 

A Gun

16

A Pound red Lead

2

A Pound Vermillion

16

A Yard double striped yard-wide Cloth

3

A double striped Cloth Coat, Tinsey laced

16

A Half Thicks or Plains Coat, gartering laced

14

A Ditto, not laced

12

A Yard Strouds

4

A Yard Plains or Half Thicks

2

A laced Hat

3

A plain Hat

2

A white Duffield Blanket

8

A Blew or red Ditto, two Yards

7

A course Linnen Shirt

3

A Gallon of Rum

4

A Pund Vermillion, (and) two Pounds red Lead mixed

20

A Yard Course Flowered Calicoe

4

Three Yards broad Scarlet Caddice

1

Even if some of these fabrics have been defined previously, for ease in seeing how the Commissioners evaluated their worth, definitions of such will follow:75

Definitions of Types of Fabrics

Caddice

In America and England it was a "cheap worsted tape or ribbon".

In France it denoted "several grades of worsted cloth." 

Callicoe

"One of the general names for the cotton-cloths of India." 

Duffel or Duffle

"Heavy, napped woolen cloth" Also called Duffields or Shags. 

Half Thicks

"Coarse woolen cloth." This material was "a degree or two above Blankets." 

Plains

Plain back was a Weaver's name for a kind of worsted fabric.76 

Stroud

"A woolen cloth woven and dyed, especially red". 

Tinsey Laced77

Tinsey is another form of the word "tinsel". Tinsey laced meant decorated with gold or silver lace.78

These materials to be traded with the Indians were made to exacting specifications. Color was important, length of cloth, width and design of the selvage, etc.79 Of course, this would vary as to time, place, and tribe.

The English did not confine their trading ventures strictly to land belonging to the established English colonies. Carolinians, like John Musgrove, had trading posts further south. His was at Yamacraw Bluff among the Yamacraw Indians whose Mico or chief was Tomo-chi-chi. The Yamacraw Indians were separated from their Creek brethren and living as a unit.

When James Oglethorpe, the first governor of Georgia, landed with the English colonists at Yamacraw Bluff in 1733, his aim was to establish a colony that would be a buffer between the Spanish in Florida and the already settled English colonies, especially North and South Carolina. It was hoped that this new colony would shield the others from the unrest of the Indians that was instigated by the Spanish.80

Prior to that period, members of The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, (S. P. G.) had been sent to South Carolina by the British Empire to establish the Anglican Church as a bulwark against the Spanish missionaries and their influence.81 One of these people was Dr. Francis Le Jau, a converted French Huguenot. He spent eleven years, which he chronicled, among the Indians.

Frank Klingberg in his introduction to The Chronicles of Dr. Francis Le Jau reported that Le Jau had a good understanding of the Indians and of their ideas.82 Le Jau preached and ministered to the Whites, Free Indians, Blacks, and Indian Slaves.

From a perusal of his chronicle, it seemed that he tried to learn about the Indians' culture. At one point he stated:

"I discoursed lately with some of Our free Indians, they ingeniously own they have forgot most of their traditions since the establishment of this Colony, they keep their Festivals and can tell but little of the reasons: their Old Men are dead;"83

This reference to "forgotten traditions" can be found throughout the diaries and journals of the early Europeans who came in contact with the Indians. It, of course, can be argued that the Indians hid from these people their oral traditions; however, it would seem to be difficult to have hidden this information from the Europeans who had lived with the Indians for periods as long as had Le Jau.

By the mid seventeen forties, two situations occurred that influenced Indian relations. Settlers in South Carolina were advancing toward the interior of the state and the French were still encroaching on English land. These circumstances, among others, caused enough Indian unrest that the South Carolina government instructed the traders to carry their goods to the Indians and to not allow the Indians to come to the settlements.84 At the same time as the settlers were advancing into the interior of South Carolina, the fur trade had reached its pinnacle and started to decline; thus, the economic balance was changing. The raising of livestock began to be an important industry and the stock driver became a recognizable figure on the frontier.85

While the southern most English colonies were changing politically and economically, the Piedmont area had become relatively stable. Most of the Indians had either expired, moved away from White civilization, or had become acculturated to the English way of life, even assuming European dress. Louis Vorsey Jr., stated that the Pamunky Indians of Virginia wore European dress and followed many of the customs of the English planters.86

Reverend Andrew Burnaby in his travels in the colonies from 1759-1760 remarked:

"The character of the North American Indians is not to be collected from observations upon the Pamunky or, any other Indian tribe living within the boundaries of the British settlements. These are in many respects changed, perhaps not for the better, from their original customs and moral habits."87

Most of the Indians, to some degree, especially the men, adopted articles of English attire. It can be learnt from the lists of goods traded what articles were in demand at different time period. A good example of the Indians's tastes can be found in a letter written by Captain Paul Demere to Governor Lyttleton from Fort Loudon (Cherokee country) on August 18, 1757.

"When the Presents appointed for Scalps88 by the Assembly were brought to them they would not take them, and said that the young Men had weared out their Cloaths, and was no Encouragement to serve us. We did what we could to pacify them, and asked them what they wanted. They said 36 Shirts, 36 Match Coats, 36 pr. Boots, 36 Flapps, besides 5 Guns and 10 Hats, which we were obliged to give them, to make them easy, and they were satisfied."89

Values of articles change as does supply and demand. It can be shown from the above example that at that time period only certain articles were desired by the Indians in question. Thus, by looking at lists of goods, the articles most desired can usually be ascertained.

In 1758 Colonel Byrd appropriated from the traders certain articles for the use of the Indians. A good portion of the articles represented either yard goods, some of which could be used directly for flaps; blankets; jewelry; and ready made clothes.

The following table is  "An account of Things Delivered to Mr. John Elliot to be carryed over to Fort Loudon by Colonel Byrd's Orders, May 2d, 1758."90

An Account of Things Delivered to Mr. John Elliot

Number

Item

  800 Weight Gun Powder
1600 Weight Trading Bullets
    13 Pieces Strowd
      3 Pieces Duffells
    16 Blankets
      5  1/2 Pieces Script Flannel
      3 Pieces Booting
      1 Bolt Oznabrigs [linen]
      3 Boxes paint
      6 Pieces Stript Cotton
     18 Douzen and 8 Cutteau Knives
     72 Checked Shirts
       5  1/2 Yards Callamanco [worsted material made with a gloss.]
     12 Yards Garlix [linen cloth]
     10 Dozen ordinary
       2 Small Baggs of Flints

The following alphabetical listing of good gives a good indication and summary of articles desired by the Indians in the mid-eighteenth century since the Indians did not trade for merchandise that they did not want. Other than articles of food, it shows, by its vast breadth, the almost total dependence of the Indians on goods of European manufacture.

The list also gives the value in trade for

".....clean, dry, well-drest and merchantable heavy Deer Skins, each weighing a Pound, and upwards, or a Pound of Bever Skins or Pelts, for each heavy drest Deer Skin, or two good light drest Deer Skins (under a pound each) for one heavy drest Deer Skin........."91

The price structure also gives a clue to the relative value of the items.

  "TABLE OF GOODS AND PRICES FOR THE INDIAN TRADE

Charles Town in South Carolina, July 19th, 1762 

By the Directors of the Cherokee Indian Trade, on Account of the Publick of the said province.92                           

Goods to be Purchased 

Quantity to be Purchased

 Pounds of Skins

Ax, Pitching

1 and so proportionally    4

Beads, Barley-corn 

7 Strings    1
      Bed Lace best 4 Yards    1

               inferior

6 Yards    1

Blankets, Strouds

2 Yards    6

               striped Duffields

     6

Bob, Ear, of Silver

a Pair    2

Bridle, and see Saddle &c.

1    2

Bullets, leaden

60    1

Buttons: either of Glass, or

   

             Stone: set in white Metal, or

   

             Mother of Pearl

1 Dozen    1

Caddice, Scarlet

12 Yards    1

Calicoe

a Yard    2

Calimanco, striped

a Yard    2

Combs Horn

2    1

            Bone

1    1

Crupper, for a Saddle

1    1

Duffields, blue,

a Yard    3

               and see Blankets

   

Flannel

2 Yards    3

Flints

20    1

Gartering

6 Yards    1

Glasses, Looking

Large One     1 1/2

Smaller

One    1

Gun

1 14

Hatchets, Square-Eye

1    2

               Oval-Eye

1    1

Hoe

1              3

Kettles, Brass

1 Pound    2

Tinn, largest

1    4

         less

1    3

         least as in bigness

1    some 2
       some 1

Knives, common Clasp

2    1

            small Cutteaus

2    1

           larger Cutteau 1 1

1    1

            largest Cutteau

1    2

Linnens, Osnabrigs

1 Yard    1

              Checked coarse

1 Yard    1

              Garlix coarse

a yard    1

Padlock,

a small One    1

Pan, Tin Pudding, round

1 large    2

1 small    1 1/2

Plains, blue or white,

1 1/4 Yards    2

Plates of Silver, Arm

1   12

                 Breast, plain

1    9

                             chased

1   12

                 Wrist

1    6

Pots, Tin, a Quart

1    1

               a Pint

2    1

Powder

14 Ounces    1

Rasor

1    1

Ribbon, Slight Taffety

2 Yards    1

Saddle, with a Bridle   best Sort

1 each   20

                               inferior Sort

1 each   15

Salt,

half a Bushel, with a Bag of 3/4 yard  Osnabrigs     6

Scissors of about £1 a dozen   cost

2 pair    1

Scissors of about £2 a dozen cost

1 pair    1

Serge, imbossed

a Yard    2 1/2

Shirt, a checked

one    3

         a white

one    3

Steels, Fire

2    1

Vermillion

an Ounce    1

Wampum, blackish

24    1

Wire, Brass, largest

a Yard    1

                    small

2 yards    1"   93    

Unfortunately, many of the goods were sold to the Indians on credit and later redeemed by the traders, a specific colony, or a mercantile company etc. for land. 


1. Even though Lawson travelled in both South and North Carolina and he titled his book A New Voyage to Carolina, the section on the Indians is entitled "An Account of the Indians of North Carolina."

2. Merrell, The Indians' New World, p. 48.

3. Lawson, A New Voyage to Carolina containing the Exact Descriptions and natural History of that Country, London 1709, p. 192. and Lawson's History of North Carolina , edited by Frances Latham Harris, p. 203.

4. Brickell, The Natural History of North Carolina, p. 315.

5. Marc Catesby, Catesby's Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and The Bahamas, p.viii. All notes in this text are from the Beehive Press edition of 1974.

6. Infants were often carried wrapped in the Match-coat.

7. This was a coarse woolen cloth.

8. A definition for this type of fabric was not in any of the reference books that dealt with the history of fabrics.

9. Lawson, 1709, pp. 190-191; Harris, pp. 201-202.

10. Marc Catesby, Catesby's Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and The Bahamas, p.viii. All notes in this text are from the Beehive Press edition of 1974.

11. Lawson, 1709, pp. 190-191; Harris, pp. 201-202.

12. Catesby, p. viii.

13. Lawson, 1709, p. 35; Harris, p. 32.

14. Lawson, 1709, pp. 191-192; Harris, pp. 202-203.

15. "American buskins were a foot-covering consisting of a strong leather sole with cloth uppers and leggings to the knees, which were fastened with lacings. Startups were similar but, heavier". Two Centuries of Costume in America by Alice Morse Earle, p. 375.

16. Catesby, p. viii.

17. Lawson, 1709, p. 171; Harris, p. 181.

18. Brickell, pp. 278-279.

19. A tribe that lived on the North-South Carolina border that became extinct or was absorbed by another tribe in the mid eighteenth century. They possibly belonged to the Siouan Linguistic family. Hodge, BAE 30, volume 1, p. 677.

20. Lawson, 1709, p. 52; Harris, p. 51.

21. Catesby, Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and The Bahamas, Beehive Press facsimile edition 1974, p. viii.

22. Lawson, 1709, p. 173; Harris, p. 183.

23. Lawson, 1709, pp. 192-193; Harris p. 204.

24. Catesby, p. viii.

25. Lawson, 1709, p. 193: Harris, p.204.

26. Catesby, p. viii.

27. Lawson, 1709, p. 193-194; Harris, 204-205.

28. Catesby, p. viii.

29. Lawson, 1709, p. 193-194; Harris, 204-205.

30. Lawson, 1709, p. 203; Harris, p. 215.

31. Lawson, 1709, p. 203; Harris, p. 215.

32. Lawson, 1709, p. 23; Harris, p.19.

33. Harris, p. 19.

34. Lawson, 1709, p. 21; Harris, p. 17.

35. The Waxhaw Indians, in the eighteenth century, still followed the practice of infant head flattening.

36. Harris, p. 32.

37. Lawson, 1709, p. 38; Harris, p. 35.

38. Lawson, 1709, p. 38; Harris, p. 35.

39. Lawson, 1709, p.22; Harris, p. 18.

40. Byrd, History of the Dividing Line, p. 286

41. Lawson, 1709, pp. 208-209; Harris, p. 221.

42. Swanton, BAE 137, p. 462.

43. Michel, edited and translated by Wm. J. Hinke, "Report of the Journey of Francis Louis Michel from Berne, Switzerland, to Virginia, October 2, 1701 - December 1, 1702," from Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Volume 24, Number 1, pp. 130-131.

44. Ibid., footnotes 30 and 31, p. 131.

45. Ibid., p. 132.

46. Ibid., p. 133.

47. William Byrd, The Prose Works of William Byrd of Westover, p. 219.

48. Ibid., pp. 217-218.

49. Rev. James Fontaine, Memoirs of a Huguenot Family, pp. 274-275.

50. Ibid., pp. 276-277.

51. Byrd, History of the Dividing Line, p. 221; Fontaine, Memoirs of a Huguenot Family, p. 350.

52. Hugh Jones, The Present State of Virginia 1724, p. 15; 1956, p. 59.

53. Ibid., 1724, p. 10; 1956, p. 56.

54. Ibid., 1724, p.11; 1956, pp. 56 & 57.

55. Brickell, The Natural History of North Carolina, p. 312.

56. Ibid., p. 312.

57. Ibid., p. 313.

58. Ibid., p. 313.

59. Ibid., p. 313.

60. Ibid., p. 314.

61. Ibid., p. 316.

62. Ibid., p. 317.

63. Ibid., p. 340.

64. Ibid., p. 280.

65. Ibid., p. 280.

66. Ibid., p. 282.

67. Ibid., p. 283.

68. Ibid., p. 283.

69. Underlined by this author and not by Brickell.

70. Brickell, The Natural History of North Carolina, pp. 283-284.

71. Ibid., p. 268.

72. Ibid., p. 284.

73. Journal of the Commissioners of the Indian Trade - September 20, 1710 - August 29, 1718, p. 281.

74. Ibid., p. 269.

75. The following definitions were taken from Florence M. Montgomery's book Textiles in America 1650-1870 unless otherwise noted.

76. The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Volume Xl, p. 958.

77. When an article of clothing is laced, example, "a laced coat", it means that the garment is edged with lace, not fastened using lacings.

78. The Oxford Universal Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Volume XVlll, p. 129.

79. Montgomery, Textiles in America, p. 353.

80. Herbert L. Osgood, The American Colonies in the Eighteenth Century, Volume 3, p. 397.

81. Frank J. Klingberg, The Carolina Chronicle of Dr. Francis Le Jau 1706-1717, p. 1.

82. Ibid., p. 10.

83. Ibid., 78.

84. Herbert L. Osgood, The American Colonies in the Eighteenth Century, Volume 3, pp. 395-396.

85. Ibid., p. 240.

86. Vorsey, The Indian Boundary in the Southern Colonies, 1763-1774, pp. 8-9.

87. Burnaby's Travels Through North America, pp. 190-191. 1904 Reprinted Edition.

88. The Indians were paid in goods by the English for acquiring enemy scalps.

89. Colonial Records of South Carolina, Documents Relating to Indian Affairs 1754-1765. p. 403.

90. Ibid.,   p. 458.

91. Ibid.,   p. 566.

92. In the list, an item will be listed under see item "X". These have been omitted from the list.

93. Colonial Records of South Carolina, Documents Relating to Indian Affairs 1754-1765, pp. 567-568.